73 50 4499 https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/f0489ce9b814181d71185e4522390ff7.pdf c3752fab251d4b532369727733a8fb6a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:3009 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2813 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles; Noty o autorach / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.1, s.103-104 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY OF ARTICLE The recurring theme of this conversation with Krzysztof Czyżewski held by Tadeusz Kornaś is the presence of folk tradition as an inspiration for artistic, theatrical, and social undertakings. In 1978-1983, Krzysztof Czyżewski was an actor in the Gardzienice theatre, conducted by Włodzimierz Staniwewski. This troupe made excursions to villages and regions distant from cultural centres, where it staged performances and sought extant elements of past culture. Traditional culture was also one of the basic fabrics constructing and inspiring the spectacles. Gusla (Magic Rites), based on the second and fourth parts of Dziady (Forefathers' Eve) by Mickiewicz, resorted to numerous motifs, songs and gestures which Gardzienice encountered while travelling. At present, Czyżewski conducts the „Borderland - arts, culture and nations" centre in Sejny, a small town near the frontier with Lithuania. The centre encourages assorted educational, artistic and cultural ventures. It also publishes the quarterly „Krasnogruda" and organises interdisciplinary meetings concerning, e. g. Bosnia, Bukowina, Transylvania, and the Romany people. The interview portrays the evolution of Czyzewski's attitude to traditional culture - from na uncritical fascination with particular elements (songs, tales) to a sui generis positivistic stance, discloced in involvement in the social, political and cultural issues of entire regions. In her article O n t h e n e e d f o r c o g n i t i o n by c o n t a c t w i t h the s o u r c e s o f r e g i o n a l c u l t u r e . T h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e B o r d e r l a n d s M u s i c F o u n d a t i o n and interviews with Monika Mamińska and Jan Bemad (We wander across the Earth asking questions), Beata Wilgo siewie z attempts to present the activity of the "Borderlands Music" Foundation (Fundacja „Muzyka Kresów"). Established in Lublin in 1991, the Foundation (directed by Jan Bemad and Monika Kamińska) joined the current of quests concerned with the possibilities, purpose and trends of the continuation of folk tradition. Shaping their own perception of this particular culture, the authors of the Foundation wish to determine which of its elements remain important and vital for contemporary man. Conferences on ethnomusicology and the spirituality of the nations of East-Central Europe, the Continuation of Tradition programme, musical workshops, concerts and assorted meetings aim at creating new forms of a discussion on rural tradition and, thus, at a different presentation of that world and its comprehension. The feature distinguishing the Foundation pursuits from numerous proposals of dealing with folk culture is the question concerning the manner of such activity and not its object. The Foundation is concerned both with discovering keys which would make it possible to reach those „lost" regions of the traditional rural world, and with the possibility of its active cognition. Bemad and Mamińska envisage traditional culture as a stand, together with ensuing questions about ultimate issues: birth, death, illness, and fate. The Braslav region - a Belorussian Province. Sketches from Symbolic Culture. Articles by Magdalena Zowczak, Dorata Hall, Aleksandra Sulikowska, Krzysztof Cibor, Agnieszka Kaminska, Joanna Rak, Zuzanna Grebecka•Cwiek, Agnieszka Kirchner, Magdalena Radkowska, Dagmara Klosse, Krystyna Gieryszewska After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Braslav region in Belarus became a periphery, cut off by state frontiers from former centres guaranteeing employment: Daugavpils in Latvia and Ignalina in Lithuania. The region in question is an eternal borderland, inhabited by assorted ethnic and religious groups: Belorussians, both Catholic and Orthodox, Poles, Old Rite Russians, Tatars, Lithuanians, Gypsies, and, before the war, Jews. Cultural differences became obliterated by progressing homogeneity, especially among the young generation. These processes are expressed to a certain extent by a specific rigid metasymbolic of the followers of well established faiths. The maxim: Boh adzin, tolko wier mnoha (There is one God but many faiths), often repeated by the inhabitants of Vidzy (a small town with a population of 3 000 - the main area of our research), signifies an actual permeation of religions, formulated in the identification of analogous elements of various rites, the borrowing of customs, and participation in different cults. Numerous interlocutors were unable to describe themselves as followers of a concrete creed. Such tendencies existed already in borderland tradition of the past. Atheization (together with accompanying customs, e.g. the dissemination of mixed marriages) reinforced attempts at a meta-religious interpretation of faiths. The Boh adzin formula could, however, denote stands different in each generation - the young use it frequently to express their distance from an already unclear and inconvenient tradition. The line of division between the believers (regardless of their faith) and „communists" the enemies of religion, appears to be growing less distinct; many of the latter take part in religious practices. The strongest feeling of identity among all the ethnic groups is represented by the Old Rite community which was the only permitted access to its own churches. The preserved old books and icons, the oldest originating in the seventeenth century, are displayed both in churches and the homes of all the faithful. Rituals associated with the icons testify to the vital prayer function which they fulfil in the spirituality of the Vidzy congregation. A l l the icons refer to the traditions of Old Russian painting (e.g. images of the Madonna with die Young Christ include icons of the Madonna of Tekhvin, Vladimir, Fiedorov, Kazan and Smolensk). The stereotype of the alien is applied predominantly to the relatively few representatives of new religious movements, such as Jehovah's Witnesses and Baptists. The absence of own language and the supranational character of these creeds contribute to their perception as „upside down" religions. Extreme opinions include stories about child sacrifices (provoked by the objections made by Jehovah's Witnesses to transfusion), convictions that bloody sacrifices are the effect of rites which drive members of sects to a state of frenzy, and the belief that the followers of new creeds trample images of the Madonna and rosaries. Visions of satanic cults are accompanied by those of a heavenly community, ruled by ideal harmony and brotherhood, whose members speak a pure language, are familiar with the Good Book, recite beautiful prayers, have the power to heal and observe rigid moral principles. Stories about miracles are dominated by the motif of punishment meted by Providence, usually against the communists for the desecration of holy sites. In accordance with the principles of reciprocity, the destruction of holy images results in the loss of the perpetrators' legs, heads and fingers. Miraculous penalty plays the role of a social sanction, renders the community of the faithful cohesive, and „sets right" contaminated reality. Despite long years of harsh atheization, the community of Vidzy continues to interpret more important events as an expression of an intervention of the sacrum in everyday life. Divine miracles, i . e. punishment and grace, are two opposite and complementary aspects of the same hierophancy. This contrast is not concurrent with a division into fascinosum and tremendum; the sacrum and grace are equally terrifying. Punishment sometimes leads to conversion and fulfils pedagogic functions while revelation, the sign of grace, becomes awesome when the Mother of God whips sinners. Grace is devoid of the value of proof, and is rarely witnessed by the non-believers. Experienced by the worthy, it is conceived as a sign of the Kingdom of God on Earth, accessible to the chosen only after death; on Earth, it exists as a foretoken and a substitute in an unattractive and senseless mundane existence. The Vidzy comprehension of miracles is close to the definition proposed by St. Augustine and contemporary apologetics - a miracle is a dialogue between the world and God, and is not compelled to seek dazzling forms. The concept of the miracle is wider and encompasses also the supernatural, which is not connected with the traditionally comprehended sacrum; it entails all that is strange: wonders, meteorological and paramental phenomena, and aliens from outer space. Researchers dealing with Russian religiosity maintain that the effects of atheization include the formation of an eclectic consciousness, associated with the concept of ..Christians in general", i . e. believers who do not identify themselves with a concrete creed. A characteristic trait of such attitudes is interest in Oriental religions, spiritualism, parapsychology, mythology built around UFOs, etc. The vision of the world held by the residents of Vidzy is also such a compilation, a typical mixture of elements of magic and religion, with a tendency towards their rationalisation by the mass media. The collapse of communism opened a market for Western and local pop-culture. Previously, the press and television, in their capacity as instruments of propaganda, were universally available and free of charge; the habit of benefiting from them is connected with susceptibility to media authorities. The recorded statements contain a constant reference to the media, and the veracity of the contents expressed by the interlocutors is legitimised by their press or television origin. The latter is also regarded as the best source of entertainment, making it possible to enjoy contact with ..heavenly reality" (South American television series); thus, it becomes a sanctified profanum. This combination of activity from various contexts is more radical than in Poland, e. g. a surgeon casts a spell on a rose while a nurse-healer claims that her power comes from the Devil. Diviners are frequently regarded as well-educated, and researchers, especially American ones equipped with omniscient computers, enjoy great esteem. Scientific achievements are, however, associated with Party meetings, held behind closed doors, and conspiracies, in accordance with the traditional comprehension of knowledge as magic, symbolised by the mythical black book, the attribute of the sorcerer. Men of science appear to be the possessors of a great secret, the only truth about each of us and the whole world. They enjoy not only knowledge but also privileges, even those linked with the looming predicted end of the world, and are engaged in constructing a gigantic ship or space rocket which will enable them to survive the imminent new deluge. The popularisation of information about other planets and the Earth, envisaged as a mere fragment of the universe, changed the image of space. The traditional conception of the other world is associated with a very concrete localisation of Hell, Heaven and Purgatory on other planets. Pseudorationalisation in reference to the religious sphere is an attempt at salvaging the cohesion of the world. The reverse side of this process is the sanctification of phenomena belonging to the category of the profanum. Religiosity, which 1 103 �owing to the significance attached to the true images of the face of Christ. The wish to benefit from the source of the sacrum is not only a trait of „folk" culture, although within the latter it survived in a form least disturbed by empiric attitudes and the culture of print. Authentic images remain on the borderline of spiritual and sensual worlds, and resemble windows open to the heavens above. The role of prayer is similar, and the frequently unskilful forms of apocryphic „little prayers", recited with difficulty by people unacquainted with the technology of the word, retain this fundamental religious function.To attain this goal, they resort to the imagery of a conciliation of worlds, a temporary unification of Heaven and Earth at a moment of teophany expressed in motionlessness, as well as a transition into the other world and the wanderings of divine words in a reverse direction, towards the Earth. A characteristic feature of folk prayers is a mosaic-like pattern of fragments of texts which frequenfly contain the most capacious schemes of Old Polish songs. The mystical symbolic, palpable „undemeath" the literal meanings of the words, borders with „sensualistic" images of the Madonna carrying the cross or emerging from the Gospel. Folk prayers interpreted in this manner are a religious measure of expression, a realisation of old religious patterns. constituted a cohesive image of reality, now protects it against disintegration, but itself succumbs to profound metamorphosis. Religious-magical techniques flourish in the conditions of Belorussian neo-feudalism in which it is difficult to plan anything in a rational manner. Traditional institutions are still sought out: the advice of healers or the protective power of objects consecrated in church (especially the St. Agatha bread and herbs). The religious culture of Vidzy combines religious and magic stands, which in practice are inseparable.The second of the two is expressed in the „at home" administration of the sacrament of baptism, even to the deceased, or in treating sacraments and sacramentalia as medicinal measures, e.g. christening as a cure against epilepsy. The magic employment of religious rites is accompanied by an attitude of religious humility and the acceptance of divine will. It seems worth to draw attention to the links between sacraments and spells. Sacraments are considered as ex definitione established by Christ, and their essence is the word; according to universally held convictions, prayers with medicinal properties are the true words of Christ. Several such texts (the majority of which functions also in Lithuania) were recorded in the region of Braslav. The ethnographer does not have at his disposal instruments which would permit him to examine the range of religious experience but he is able of indicating assorted ways in which such texts function, and different possibilities of interpreting them within the same culture. Folk prayers, which survived despite the inimical attitude of the Church, to say the least, and, generally speaking, outside the Church, appear to be a suitable object for a presentation of such variegated significance. They are simultaneously magic formulas or at least possess features of magic spells. This property is due to the very nature of oral transmission, which applies mnemotechnical measures and grants words a specific existence; the other reason could be described as mystical (understood as a technique aiming at the attainment of direct religious experience). A particular feature of folk prayer is the fact that it is legitimised as a holy text by direct reference to the source of the sacrum; this is why such a prayer is usually expressed in the words of the Lord Jesus (Mother of God) or as a letter written directly in Heaven. The power of holy words is associated with their supernatural origin, understood literally. The living, i. e. holy words must come from the very source of power, and hence, similarly to the Gospel, they carry the injunction of their transition to other people, although only letters by Jesus, a sui generis interpretation of the Decalogue, do so under the threat of terrible divine punishment. In the religious context, the concepts of an original, a copy, and especially plagiarism lose their sense. The scheme of recognised revelation becomes universal property. The rewriting of holy .words and the attachment of supernatural powers to them do not have to be the expression of a magical attitude. Such behaviour is analogous to the veneration of miraculous images and their copies, universal in religious culture, including that of the Eastern rite Church. Neither Abgar, king of Edessa, nor Veronica were historical figures but they function in the religious tradition recognised by the Church Danuta Kuźnicka Deconstructivist Strategies in Polish Stagings For the past twenty years, at the very least, the Polish contemporary theatre presented stagings in which the mechanism of the functioning of meanings appears to resemble some of the deconstructivist categories described by Jacques Derrida. Deconstructivist ..strategies", which the article refers to stagings proposed by e. g. Jerzy Grzegorzewski, Leszek Mądzik and Krystian Lupa, denote an obliteration of the cohesion of the work and its uniformity, the undermining of the opposition, emphasis on the part played by margins, and the leaving of the meanings non-enforced and the context open. Other features include the multiple functions of „non-resolving" objects as well as intertextuality and associated accents on the process-like aspect of the staging. In numerous spectacles, the described strategies are counterbalanced by an emergent uniformity of the work, which produces inspiring tension between the disintegrated image of the world, suggested by deconstuctivism, and uniformity which, together with cohesion, forms the foundations of wellordered reality. Bronisław Malinowski A Diary This issue inaugurates the publication of the early diares kept by the renowned anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski. The diaries are preceded by an introduction by Grażyna Kubica-Heller and two texts - by Maria Ossowska and Clifford Geertz - discussing the diaries, written only in English during field research conducted on the Trobriand Islands - 'The Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term". NOTY O AUTORACH Jan Bernad - w latach 1974-76 współpracował ze Stanisławem Ścierskim przy realizacji stażów parateatralnych w Teatrze Laboratorium. W 1977 był w grupie powołującej Teatr „Gardzienice". Po odejściu z „Gardzienic" w 1984 do 1990 realizował przedsięwzięcia odwołujące się do kul­ tur tradycyjnych. W 1991 wraz z Moniką Mamińską powołał Fundację „Muzyka Kresów". Pełni funkcję dyrektora Os'rodka Badań Muzykolo­ gicznych i Kulturowych Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej powołanego przy Fundacji. Tadeusz Chrzanowski - profesor historii sztuki; wykładowca na KUL-u, UJ oraz pracował w Katalogu Zabytków w IS PAN. Autor m.in. takich książek jak Wędrówki po sarmacji europejskiej. Eseje o sztuce i kulturze staropolskiej (1988), Sztuka w Polsce Piastów i Jagiellonów (1993). Współautor Katalogu Zabytków Sztuki w Polsce. Krzysztof Cibor - student KEiAK UW. Krzysztof Czyżewski - polonista (studia UAM), jeden ze współtwórców „Gardzienic", współzałożyciel w stanie wojennym „Czasu Kultury", au­ tor wielu inicjatyw związanych z teatrem, dyrektor Os'rodka „Pogranicze - sztuk, kultur, narodów" (Sejny, od 1991), redaktor naczelny „Krasnogródy". Laureat m.in. Nagrody POLCUL Foundation, Nagrody Arty­ stycznej Młodych im. S. Wyspiańskiego, Nagrody paryskiej „Kultury" za rok 1996. Clifford Geertz - profesor antropologii w Instytute for Advanced Study, Princeton (New Jersey). Jeden z najwybitniejszych antropologów swojej generacji w USA. Autor m.in. tak znaczących książek, jak The Interpre­ tation ofCultur, Local Knowledge i Works and Lives. The Anthropologist as Author. Krystyna Gieryszewska - etnolog, pracuje w KEiAK UW. Zuzanna Grębecka-Cwiek - studentka KEiAK UW. . Dorota Hall - studentka KEiAK UW. Angieszka Kamińska - studentka KEiAK UW. **\ f BIBLIOTEKA fj Agnieszka Kirchner - studentka KEiAK UW. Dagmara Klosse - studentka KEiAK UW. Tadeusz Kornaś - teatrolog (studia na Wydziale Wiedzy o Teatrze warszaw­ skiej PWST). Publikował m.in. w „Teatrze", „Didaskaliach", „Dialogu". Mieszka w Krakowie. Grażyna Kubicka-Heller - jest pracownikiem Zakładu Antropologii w Insytucie Socjologii UJ. Jest autorką książki Luteranie na Śląsku Cieszyńskim oraz współredaktorką tomu Malinowski Between Two Worlds, CUP 1988. Interesuje się problematyką mniejszości religijnych oraz biografią i twór­ czością Bronisława Malinowskiego. Mieszka w Krakowie i Ustroniu. Danuta Kuźnicka - adiunkt w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, wykładowca w Aka­ demii Teatralnej w Warszawie i w Szkole Nauk Humanistycznych. Zaj­ muje się teatrem plastycznym i teorią teatru. Monika Mamińską - studia na KUL-u (filozofia teoretyczna, polonistyka); od 1991 roku pracuje wspólnie z Janem Bernadem w Fundacji „Muzyka Kresów" w Lublinie. Mieszka w Radiomiu. Maria Ossowka - (1896-1974)-teoretyk moralności i socjolog. Autorka m.in. takich książek jak Podstawy nauki o moralności (1947), Moralność mie­ szczańska (1956), Socjologia moralności (1963), Normy moralne (1970). Joanna Rak - studentka KEiAK UW. Magdalena Radkowska - studentka KEiAK UW. Aleksandra Sulikowska - studentka historii sztuki UW. Beata Wilgosiewicz - absolwentka filologi polskiej (UAM Poznań) i Pody­ plomowego Studium Etnografii (UMK Toruń). W latach 1991-94 praco­ wała w Os'rodku „Pogranicze - sztuk, kultur, narodów" w Sejnach. Obe­ cnie jest doktorantką SNS przy PAN w Warszawie. Zajmuje się współcze­ snymi odwołaniami do tradycyjnej kultury ludowej. Magdalena Zowczak - etnolog, zajmuje się zagadnieniami z pogranicza hi­ storii sztuki, formami życia religijnego wsi, kulturą duchową. Adiunkt w KEiAK UW. Autorka książki Bohater wsi. Mit i stereotypy (1991). �W poprzednich numerach - Kulturze naszych wschodnich sąsiadów poświęcone były w całości następujące numery „Kontekstów" Litwa nr 3-4/1993, Ukraina i Grodzieńszczyzna nr 3-4/1996 - Problematyka antropologii teatru i powrotu do źródeł pojawiała się w numerach 3-4/1991, 2/1993 oraz 2/1995 - W roku 1997 nr 1-2; 3^1 rozpoczęliśmy druk materiałów dotyczących Bronisława Malinowskiego: m.in. korespondencję z Żoną, list z Londynu do Anieli Zagórskiej oraz krytycznych materiałów dotyczą­ cych jego osoby i pracy. WARUNKI P R E N U M E R A T Y 1. Wpłaty na prenumeratę prowadzoną przez „Ruch" przyjmowane są na okresy kwartalne. Cena prenumeraty wynosi 4,50 zł za numer. Prenumerata ze zleceniem dostawy za granicę jest o 100% droższa. Wpłaty na prenu­ meratę przyjmują: - na terenie kraju - jednostki kolportażowe „ R u c h " ; istnieje r ó w n i e ż m o ż l i w o ś ć prenumeraty „pod opaską". Wpłaty od osób i instytucji z miejscowości, w których nie ma jednostek kolportażu „Ruch" należy wnosić do Ruch SA Oddz. W-wa, ul. Towarowa 28, konto jak niżej: - na zagranicę - Z a k ł a d Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw 00-958 Warszawa, konto P B K SA, X I I I Oddział W-wa 11101053-16-551-2700-1-67. Dostawa zamówione prasy następuje: - przez jednostki kolportażowe „Ruch" - w sposób uzgodniony z zamawiającym. - przez urzędy pocztowe - pocztą zwykłą na wskazany adres, w ramach opłaconej prenumeraty z wyjątkiem zlecenie dostawy na zagranicę pocztą lotniczą do odbiorcy zagranicznego, której koszt w pełni pokrywa prenumerator. Terminy przyjmowania prenumeraty na kraj i zagranicę - do 20 X I na I kwartał roku następnego, do 20 I I - na I I kwartał, do 20 V na I I I kwartał, do 20 V I I I na I V kwartał. 2. Prenumeratę „Kontekstów" prowadzi także firma A M O S , Warszawa, ul. Zuga 12, 01-806 Warszawa (tel. 34 65 21). Wpłaty na okre­ sy półroczne (dwa zeszyty lub jeden podwójny) i roczne przyjmowane są na konto: A M O S , V I I I Oddział PKO BP, Warszawa Nr 10201084-77578-270-1-111. 3. Cena prenumeraty rocznej przez „Ruch" lub AMOS wynosi 18 zł. Prenumerata za półrocze: 9 zł; numer pojedynczy 4,50 zł. 4. Zeszyty bieżące oraz niektóre dawne można kupować w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, Warszawa, ul. Długa 28 (hall) 5. Prenumerata zapewnia otrzymywanie pisma w cenie wyżej podanej, niezależnie od tego, o ile droższy będzie w sprzedaży numer. Wydawnictwo Instytutu Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, publikuje książki i czasopisma z zakresu sztuki, teatru, filmu, muzyki, folkloru Stałą sprzedażą książek i czasopism Wydawnictwa IS PAN, prowadzi Dział Wydawnictw Instytutu Sztuki 00-950 W-wa, ul. Długa 28. tel. 831-32-71 do 79 w. 274, 258 oraz następujące księgarnie: Gdańsk Gdańska Księgarnia Naukowa, Łagiewniki 56 Kraków Antykwariat „Bibliofil", Szpitalna 19 Księgarnia Akademicka, ul. Anny 6 Księgarnia Naukowa „Elefant", ul. Podwale 6 Łódź Księgarnia Ossolineum, Piotrkowska 181 Poznań Bestseller, Wrocławska 16 Księgarnia Koala, Ratajczaka 39 Księgarnia Uniwersytecka, Zwierzyniecka 7 Szczecin Księgarnia Literacka „Ossolineum" ul Gen. Sikorskiego 7 Warszawa Główna Księgarnia Naukowa im. Bolesława Prusa Krakowskiego Przedmieście 7 Księgarnia ORPAN, Pałac Kultury i Nauki Księgarnia ORPAN BIS, ul. Twarda 51/55 S.C. Księgarnia Ossolineum „Litera" ul. Jaworzyńska 4 Księgarnia Uniwersytecka „Liber" Krakowskie Przedmieście 24 Księgarnia w Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej Pałac Książąt Ujazdowskich Księgarnia „Reprint", Krakowskie Przedmieście 71 Księgarnia „Odeon", Hoża 19 Księgarnia „Odeon" II, ul. Bagatela 14 Księgarnia „Czytelnik", ul. Wiejska 14 Galeria „Zachęta", pj n Małachowskiego 3 a Wrocław Księgarnia Ossolineum, Rynek 6 Ciągłą sprzedaż hurtową publikacji Wydawnictwa IS PAN prowadzi: 1. Akademia Klon s.c. Hurtownie Książek. 01-217 W-wa, ul. Kolejowa 15/17, tel. 632-55-91 2. Skład Księgarski „centrum" sp. z o.o. 01-217 W-wa, ul. Kolejowa 5/7 tel. 631-86-93 Numer liczy 13 ark. druk. Fotoskład: „Iskra", Warszawa, ul. Ratuszowa 11; tel. 18-94-24 Druk: inż. Piotr Włodarski, ul. Ksawerów 21; tel. 43-14-71 w. 240 Nakład 1200 egzemplarzy � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/73ab80f4b8b5f426256877beda379dae.pdf acd0bef1876177110f8781c10cc4388c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:2677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2490 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles; Noty o autorach / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.2, s.112 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY OF ARTICLE Stanisław Cichowicz Ignorabimus. Anthropological Notes Obviousness of appearance is the starting point of this brief philosophical essay. Taken from B . Chmielowski's famous 17-th century encyclopedia Nowe Ateny (New Athens), a definition of a horse reads: ..Everybody sees what a horse looks like". Set against Pontius Pilate's words about Jesus Christ „Ессе Homo" (Behold the man), the definition becomes the basis for a survey of miscellaneous definitions of man, formulated with reference to both Greek and Biblical tradition. But they all seem to fail. Who is man? Ignorabimus. THEATRE A N D ANTHROPOLOGY * ** The Fool. From the Perspective of a Few Worlds. Khalid Tyabji Talks Not Only About Theatre with Jola Cynkutis, Dagnoslaw Demski and Sławomir Sikora When at college, Khalid Tyabji, who is a Hindu joined a theatre troupe run by European Barry John in Delhi. The group performed both Hindu and European plays. This was when Tyabji made his first contact with a world of local tribesmen. Tyabji also studied anthropology and arrived in Poland to take the Ph.D. in anthropology. He began to collaborate with actors whose roots were in Grotowski's Laboratorium theatre. Tyabji tells about his theatre education, own theatrical vision, mingling with members of tribal communities and life among the people, and about gradually abandoning the attempt of scientific cognition towards cognition trough common life. He began to produce spectacles in which he made use of the character of a fool (e.g. Genaral Tomfoolery, Foolsong) The character turned out to be close to his nature and allowed him, without being „tom between" to participate and live in different worlds. He has also acted in the films Kamasutra and Hanuman. Henryk Jurktjwski Puppets in Ritual The autor present a panorama of puppets participating in the different kind of rituals mainly in Africa, Asia and America. In his enumeration readers can find reports on such primary customs as cult of ancestors connected with funeral rituals, fertility rituals and all other use of the magical puppets in the primary medicine men or in the acts of devinations. He opposed the pure African or American ritual to the so called Asian theatres. Asian puppet theater shadow ones and those with three dimensional figures have not served in fact to communion with god by repetition of his deeds and life (classic definition of ritual) executed in the collective manner but had the individual, narrative character, executed by one puppeteer-priest (dalang, pulavar) and besides many practical functions (exorcism, fertility targets, supplication). The Author try to respond the question how does it happen that the Asian theatre although presenting developed stories remained instruments of the humans relationship with gods. He found the answer in different origins of the European and Asian puppet theatre. The first started from the "pure" ritual giving initiative to the coryphaeus who became stage characters; the second (Asian) had its origins in acts of shamanns, who retained till now their leading functions as the narrator of the still sacred shows. However the Author is aware that his classification has only a model value because the ritual and theatre are full of hybrid phenomena. Monika Sznajderman The Jester. The Birth and Structure of a Myth This text comprises an attempt at describing the fundamental structure of the mythical thought which gave rise to the archaic and contemporary universal figure of the jester, both "literal" and "metaphorical", which we encounter on all levels of culture: from "low", folk, and popular to "high", from the circus and fairground theatre to the cinema, painting, and music. Tracing the history of the jester via the etymology of this concept in assorted languages, his fate in the circus, the theatre, and literature, as well as the history of his costume, the author allows us to perceive the bond which links thoroughly contemporary literary or film figures, whose features of a jester, at first glance not at all obvious, are discovered by us only after careful analysis, with their mythological ancestors, originating in Greek, Roman or Hindu culture. Death in Mass Media The articles collected in the section Death in Mass Media were presented at session organized by students of the Department of Ethnology and Anthropology of Culture of Warsaw University in Spring 1998. The areas the young authors devote their attention to include: film, TV, newspapers and popular periodicals, women's magazines and tabloids, reporter's photography, cartoons, advertizing and a world of computer cyberspace. You will find here reflections on the presence and absence in the media of death, of playng with death, and commercialization of death. The articles speak a lot about a state of contemporary culture dominated by the media. And about seriousness and insignificace of the culture, and its peculiar exhibitionism. Bronisław Malinowski A Diary This issue continues the publication of the early diares kept by the renowned anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski. The diaries are preceded by an introduction by Grażyna Kubica-Heller. NOTY O AUTORACH Iwona Chodorowska - studentka K E i A K UW, uczestniczka badań terenowych w Widzach na Białorusi, por. „Konteksty" Nr 1/1998 Krzysztof Cibor - student K E i A K UW. Stanisław Cichowicz - filozof, tłumacz, edytor, poeta, artysta. Autor książki Fi­ lozof i istnienie. U podstaw teodyceii G. Leibniza, PWN 1970, Est modus in Rehus, Tow. Muzyki Współczesnej 1987, Moje ucho a księżyc. Diagnozy i dy­ wagacje, Wyd. Słowo, Obraz i Terytoria 1966, Czy można przesadzić rzepak? 67 haiku, Wyd. BWA 1966. Jola Cykunlis - przez jedenaście lat pracowała ze Zbigniewem Cynkutisem, czo­ łowym aktorem Teatru Laboratorium. Po jego śmierci kontynuuje i rozwija metodę pracy teatralnej, jako aktorka, reżyser, prowadząc warsztaty w Polsce, Annglii, Niemczech, Włoszech, USA. Ostatnio wspótprowadzila międzynaro­ dowy projekt Quo Vudis (Unia Europejska, 1997) oraz współpracowała przy powstawaniu spektaklu Człowiek Serce Khalida Tyabji. Dagnosław Demski - etnolog (studia U W ) . Praca doktorska na temat ludowego hinduizmu. Pracuje w Zakładzie Etnologii I A E PAN. Prowadzi! badania tere­ nowe w Indiach, Pakistanie i na Białorusi. Zuzanna Grębecka-Ćwick - studentka K E i A K UW. Dorota Hall - studentka K E i A K UW. Kirsten Hastrup - s'wiatowej sławy antropolog, profesor w Instytucie Antropologii w Kopenhadze. Autorka licznych artykułów i książek. Ostatnio wydała (wraz z P. Hervikiem) książkę Social Experience and Anthropological Knowledge (1994). Hennryk Jurkowski - ur. 1927, teatrolog, profesor w Akademii Teatralnej w Warszawie Wydział Lalkarski w Białymstoku. Teoretyk i historyk teatru la­ lek. Również prace z zakresu folklorystyki, semiologii, antropologii. Krytyk teatralny publikujący swe prace w czasopismach „Literatura Ludowa", „Sce­ na", „Teatr", „Dialog" i inne. Dramaturg i tłumacz. Do najważniejszych prac historycznych należą: trzytomowe Dzieje teatru lalek (PIW 1970-1984); do prac teoretycznych: Szkice z teorii teatru lalek ( P O L U N I M A - Ł ó d ź ) , do dzieł dramatycznych Tryptyk staropolski wystawiony w Teatrze Lubelskim (1972). Szeroka działalność zagraniczna głównie w Międzynarodowym Stowarzysze­ niu Tatrów Lalek U N I M A (sekretarz generalny, prezydent, prezydent honoro­ wy). Stalą współpraca ze szkołami teatralnymi (w charakterze profesora go­ ścinnego) w Londynie, Stuttgarcie, Charleville-Mezieres, i Pradze czeskiej. Adrianna Kabza - studentka K E i A K UW. Angieszka Kamińska - studentka K E i A K UW. Agnieszka Kirchner - studentka K E i A K UW. Grażyna Kubica-Heller - jest pracownikiem Zakładu Antropologii w Insytucie Socjologii UJ. Jest autorką książki Luteranie na Śląsku Cieszyńskim oraz współredaktorką tomu Malinowski Between Two Worlds, CUP 1988. Interesuje się pro­ blematyką mniejszości religijnych oraz biografią i twórczością Bronisława Ma­ linowskiego. Mieszka w Krakowie i Ustroniu. Barbara Myerhoff - zmarła profesor antropologii. Autorka m.in. Number Our Days. Peyote Hunt. Draginja Nadazdin - studentka K E i A K UW. Magdalena Radkowska - studentka K E i A K UW. Tomasz Rakowski - student K E i A K UW. Sławomir Sikora - etnolog (studia U W ) . Zajmuje się antropologią filmu i foto­ grafii Krzysztof Strachota - student K E i A K UW. Tomasz Strączek - etnograf, studia UW. Kierownik Muzeum Uniwersytetu War­ szawskiego. Wykłada w K E i A K UW. Monika Sznajderman - etnolog (studia UW), studia doktoranckie w Instytucie Sztuki PAN. Napisała pracę doktorską poświęconą postaci błazna w kulturze. Autorka książki Zaraza. Mitologia dżumy, cholery i Aids. Khalid Tyabji - studiował antropologię, od czasów collegee'u związany z tea­ trem, m. in. współpracował z aktorami wywodzącymi się z teatru Laboratorium Grotowskiego. We własnych przedstawieniach odwołuje się do postaci błazna, z jego bogatą tak hinduską jak i europejską symboliką. Postać ta - jak twierdzi - pozwala mu funkcjonować na granicy wielu światów (Europa, Indie, świat społeczności plemiennych). Tomoho Umeda - student K E i A K UW. Anna Wróbel - studentka K E i A K UW. Marceli Zygała - student K E i A K UW. SPROSTOWANIA W poprzednim numerze (nr 1/1998) autorami fotografii na stronie 12 i 13 jest p. Krzysztof Furmanek, a na stronie 15 Władysław Kaleta. Autorów serdecznie przepraszamy za pominięcie ich nazwisk. Przepraszamy również serdecznie p. Grażynę Kubicę-Heller za zniekształcenie jej nazwiska w nocie o autorce. 112 �W poprzednich numerach „Kontekstów" - Problematyce antropologii teatru poświęcone były numery 3-4/1991, 2/1993 oraz 2/1995 - Antropologii śmierci numer 1-2/1986 WARUNKI P R E N U M E R A T Y 1. Wpłaty na prenumeratę prowadzoną przez „Ruch" przyjmowane są na okresy kwartalne. Cena prenumeraty w 1998 roku wynosi 4,50 zł za numer (w 1999 - 5 zł). Prenumerata ze zleceniem dostawy za granicę jest o 100% droższa. Wpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmują: - na terenie kraju - jednostki kolportażowe „Ruch"; istnieje również możliwość prenumeraty „pod opaską". Wpłaty od osób i instytucji z miejscowości, w których nie ma jednostek kolportażu „Ruch" należy wnosić do Ruch SA Oddz. W-wa, ul. Towarowa 28, konto jak niżej: - na zagranicę - Zakład Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw 00-958 Warszawa, konto P B K S A , X I I I Oddział W-wa 11101053-16-551-2700-1-67. Dostawa zamówione prasy następuje: - przez jednostki kolportażowe „Ruch" - w sposób uzgodniony z zamawiającym. - przez urzędy pocztowe - pocztą zwykłą na wskazany adres, w ramach opłaconej prenumeraty z wyjątkiem zlecenie dostawy na zagranicę pocztą lotniczą do odbiorcy zagranicznego, której koszt w pełni pokrywa prenumerator. Terminy przyjmowania prenumeraty na kraj i zagranicę - do 20 X I na I kwartał roku następnego, do 20 II - na II kwartał, do 20 V na III kwartał, do 20 VIII na I V kwartał. 2. Prenumeratę „Kontekstów" prowadzi także firma AMOS, Warszawa, ul. Zuga 12, 01-806 Warszawa (tel. 34 65 21). Wpłaty na okre­ sy półroczne (dwa zeszyty lub jeden podwójny) i roczne przyjmowane są na konto: AMOS, VIII Oddział P K O BP, Warszawa Nr 10201084-77578-270-1-111. 3. Cena prenumeraty rocznej przez „Ruch" lub AMOS wynosi 18 zł (w 1999 - 20 zł). Prenumerata za półrocze: 9 zł (w 1999 - 10 zł); numer pojedynczy 4,50 zł (w 1999 - 5 zł). 4. Zeszyty bieżące oraz niektóre dawne można kupować w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, Warszawa, ul. Długa 28 (hall). 5. Prenumerata zapewnia otrzymywanie pisma w cenie wyżej podanej, niezależnie od tego, o ile droższy będzie w sprzedaży numer. Wydawnictwo Instytutu Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, publikuje książki i czasopisma z zakresu sztuki, teatru, filmu, muzyki, folkloru Stałą sprzedażą książek i czasopism Wydawnictwa IS PAN, prowadzi Dział Wydawnictw Instytutu Sztuki 00-950 W-wa, ul. Długa 28. tel. 831-32-71 do 79 w. 274, 258 oraz następujące księgarnie: Gdańsk Warszawa - Gdańska Księgarnia Naukowa, Łagiewniki 56 - Antykwariat „Bibliofil", Szpitalna 19 Księgarnia Akademicka, ul. Anny 6 Księgarnia Naukowa „Elefant", ul. Podwale 6 Kraków - - Główna Księgarnia Naukowa im. Bolesława Prusa Krakowskiego Przedmieście 7 Księgarnia ORPAN, Pałac Kultury i Nauki Księgarnia ORPAN BIS, ul. Twarda 51/55 S.C. Księgarnia Ossolineum „Litera" ul. Jaworzyńska 4 Księgarnia Uniwersytecka „Liber" Krakowskie Przedmieście 24 Księgarnia w Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej Pałac Książąt Ujazdowskich Księgarnia „Reprint", Krakowskie Przedmieście 71 Księgarnia „Odeon", Hoża 19 Księgarnia „Odeon" II, ul. Bagatela 14 Księgarnia „Czytelnik", ul. Wiejska 14 Galeria „Zachęta", Plan Małachowskiego 3 - Księgarnia Ossolineum, Rynek 6 - Łódź - Księgarnia Ossolineum, Piotrkowska 181 - Bestseller, Wrocławska 16 Księgarnia Koala, Ratajczaka 39 Księgarnia Uniwersytecka, Zwierzyniecka 7 - Księgarnia Literacka „Ossolineum" ul Gen. Sikorskiego 7 - Poznań Szczecin Wrocław Ciągłą sprzedaż hurtową publikacji Wydawnictwa IS PAN prowadzi: 1. Akademia Klon s c . Hurtownie Książek. 01-217 W-wa, ul. Kolejowa 15/17, tel. 632-55-91 2. Skład Księgarski „centrum" sp. z o.o. 01-217 W-wa, ul. Kolejowa 5П tel. 631-86-93 Numer liczy 14 ark. druk. Fotoskład: „Iskra", Warszawa, ul. Ratuszowa 11; tel. 18-94-24 Druk: inż. Piotr Włodarski, ul. Ksawerów 21; tel. 43-14-71 w. 240 Nakład 1200 egzemplarzy � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/fb72b05fb32ec6f7f8b7b519bf2e2309.pdf 07ecb4b7d1773fe06d4927cb0cf96ee7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:2726 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2537 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles; Noty o autorach / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.3-4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1998 t.52 z.3-4, s.220-225 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY OF ARTICLE Stanisław Cichowicz The Sartre Problem According to testimony by Simone de Beauvoir, the wife of J. P. Sar­ tre, the French philosopher was fascinated by Objects from the very out­ set of his interests; this is the reason why he fell under the spell of the slo­ gan Zu den Sachen selbst, repeated constantly during the 1930s by Ger­ man phenomenologists. Delighting in the writings of E. Husserl, the yo­ ung Sartre rapidly learned from his master how to refer to phenomena that astonish human consciousness. The first examples of phenomenological explorations are found in the early texts of the Parisian philosopher, such as The Fundamental Idea of Husserl 's Phenomenology and Imaginaire. Teresa Grzybkowska Finis Poloniae and The 1905 Revolution by Jacek Malczewski or a Confession of Love? Jacek Malczewski is one of the most outstanding painters from the turn of the nineteenth century. Since he left his canvases untitled, some of them have different titles, a feature which was associated with the in­ terpretation of a given work. The author is aware of her own doubts as re­ gards the interpretation of mythological and symbolical paintings, which oscillates between patriotic and personal mythology. She also suggests that the canvas The 1905 Revolution , heretofore interpreted politically, could be described as the Apotheosis of the Artist and His Muses. Mytho­ logy, which in the case of Malczewski played a fundamental role, once again proved to be the inspiration of his art. The myth permitted the ar­ tist to view life as poetry, in which he too participates. Witold Dobrowolski The Malczewski Mythology This text was conceived a speech given during a promotion of the album Świat obrazów Jacka Malczewskiego (The World of Paintings by Jacek Malczewski) by Teresa Grzybkowska. In a presentation of the canvases by Malczewski, Dobrowolski indicates, i . a. patriotic-Romantic, folklore and folk motifs (following the example of K. Wyka); he also emphasises the im­ portant fact that Prof. T. Grzybkowska drew attention to the Greek myths, which in the works by Malczewski often function under local disguise (Orpheus and Eurydice, Pythia and Nike). No other scholar has devoted so much attention to the role of the sub-consciousness and the impulses, fully unaware or intentionally stilled, which steered the imagination of the artist. Maria Janion The Pond in Wielgie, or Between Laughter and Death Prof. Janion derives the symbolic paintings by Jacek Malczewski from his youthful confession to a "wish to paint differently than the old masters, a wish to paint reality". This desire is expressed in domestic forms contrasted to Western ones. Malczewski resorted to folklore, albe­ it the latter is not treated as a pretext—we are dealing with integral pro­ ducts of the imagination, a cohesive creation of fantasy in daily life. Ja­ nion compares such an approach to folklore with the way in which it was treated in Klechdy Polskie (Polish Folk Tales) by the excellent poet B. Les'mian. Its outcome is not ascribed actual being, but treated as contact be­ tween the individual and the world. Folk qualities are enhanced with an element of irony, existential experience. The canvases by Malczewski al­ so introduce a category of Romantic aesthetics—artistic irony. The pain­ ter started with figures borrowed from Slavonic folklore, subsequently supplanted by Greek motifs. In both cases, Malczewski and Les'mian combined laughter and death, a demonic and an ironic aura. Zygmunt Kubiak The Hellenism of Jacek Malczewski This consecutive opinion concerning Jacek Malczewski is voiced by an acclaimed expert on antiquity. Poetry is closer to philosophy than to history, and speaks about things which could occur on the level of proba­ bility or necessity. The author ponders on the reception of Malczewski's canvases (which resorted to motifs and figures from the Greek world: harpies, chimeras and Orpheus) by anciem Greeks. In conclusion, he claims that, paradoxically, the greatest difficulties would occur with the understanding and "deciphering" of the Greek motifs. Tomasz Żukowski May I be Consumed by Fire Like a Wood Shaving Ablaze in the Bre­ ath of the Night. The Occupation-era Experiencing of the World in the Poetry of К. K. Baczyński Poems by Baczyński are treated as a record of inner experience, orga­ nised around two images: the archetypical plenitude and its distorted 220 contradiction, which paradoxically becomes the lot of the warrior strug­ gling for the national cause. This fullness is closely connected with the gift of poetry, and is expressed in mythical landscapes. The rejection of Arcadian images, visible in the Baczyński poems, is caused by progres­ sing self-cognition, in which the armed deed reveals its dual, ironic natu­ re. A battle undertaken in the name of defending the idea of the fullness of humanity turns into its contradiction. The place of Arcadia is assumed by the Inferno. Enclosure in exit-less space, the futility of gTace, and apo­ calyptically deformed bodies are signs of squandering the image of per­ fection and ensuing self-hatred. In this context, death loses the dimension of the gateway of transcendence, and can become mere nullity which frees from suffering. Lech Sokół Henrik Ibsen—a Personal Myth The works of Ibsen are universally and unambiguously associated with common sense and realism, an attachment to the concrete and the detail, the emancipation of women, a struggle for the sake of truth in individual and collective life, as well as religious and political libera­ lism. The author of the article shows how those conceptions concerning Ibsen as a writer remain incomplete and, to a considerable degree, fal­ se. By applying the term "personal myth" (only partially concurrent with conceptions expounded by psychoanalysts), the author is intere­ sted in the experiences and mythical places which possess essential si­ gnificance for Ibsen: imagery, which accompanied him, motifs of his thought and works, and, finally, moments of illumination in contact with nature and art. The departure for Italy exerted a foremost impact on the intellectual development of Ibsen. This contact granted the arrival from the distant northern province profound liberation from the traumatic aspects of Nor­ wegian experiences as well as spiritual enlightenment, and rendered po­ ssible a transition to a prominently different phase of creativity. Dariusz Czaja Tuscany. Three Journeys The author proposes a detailed characteristic of three descriptions of journeys to Tuscany made by Pavel Muratov, David Herbert Lawrence and Albert Camus. Emphasis is placed on the similarity and differences of perception in texts representing different genres. Reflections on Tusca­ ny are situated within the Arcadian myth of Italy, which has a long Euro­ pean tradition. The author demonstrates its steadfastness in descriptions by Muratov and Lawrence, and partial destruction performed in the re­ marks by Camus. The closing part of the study considers the possible exi­ stence of a myth of Tuscany as a "realised Paradise", a land of aesthetic and existential harmony, within contemporary culture and reflections marked by wartime trauma. Marzena Gierga Syracuse—The Town of Great Women (Part I) Syracuse is a town created by deities, saints, historians, travellers, apologists, theologians, photographers, and, primarily, its own residents. It comprises a phenomenon located above a division into an urban and social subsystem, an area of eloquent meanings, a space for the realisa­ tion of concrete and specifically identical attitudes. The metaphorical, mystic-symbolic space of Syracuse is that of three women. This is the birthplace of Artemis, the refuge and site of the eter­ nal rest of Arethusa, and the town of the birth, life and martyrdom of Lu­ cia. By demonstrating the constant presence of the patron in the life of the city, which provokes assorted forms of group imagery, a process of rendering space mythical, and a creation of a world of values shared by its residents, Syracuse gains new meaning. It appears as a town of light, a land of purity, saintliness and glory, a city of luminescence and joy. Its topography is superimposed upon that of its inhabitants, and vice versa, while observed behaviour is granted a double meaning, and comprises an example of the observation of a distinguished place, but also of a trans­ formation of a myth into a ritual, frequently without social awareness. Its outcome assumes the form of the specific dramaturgy of the everyday l i ­ fe of the population of Syracuse, whose sense of existence is restricted to an encounter with the three patrons, advocates, guides and friends, a fact which entitled the author to describe it as "the town of great women". The presented cult of St. Lucia is more of a cult of her image than the worship of a saint, while a version of the hagiographic legend becomes a reference to a myth. That what, at first glance, appears to be contradic­ tory, is encountered on the ethical level of a symbolic structure. By refer­ ring to an analysis of the fundamental structure of those transmissions, �with different contents but similar form and meaning, the author demon­ strates the symbolic continuum of elements characterising Syracuse across the ages. The point of departure for such journeys was the ascer­ tainment of the "strangeness" of this place, disclosed by the omnipresent cult of St. Lucia and her pagan companions in assorted aspects of cultu­ re. Their outcome assumed the form of a co-existence of the literary-me­ taphorical topos of Syracuse and its real, magical-ritual counterpart. Jerzy Wojciechowski The Sketchbook of Jan Potocki from His Journey to the Moroccan Em­ pire Count Jan Potocki (1761-1815) was a man of many talents, endowed with extraordinary intellectual temperament, and a highly original erudi­ te. Although associated primarily with the excellent novel The Saragossa Manuscript (written oryginally in French), it seems worth remembe­ ring that the legacy of this researcher and traveller contains notes and dra­ wings from his journeys. The author discusses a heretofore unpublished sketchbook dating from a journey to Morocco, made in 1791. The origi­ nal is to be found in the Illustrations Room of the Warsaw University L i ­ brary. Marta Miskowiec Kano. Dreadful Heat, Exhaustion and Dust The author invites the reader to visit the Nigerian town of Kano; the Berbers claim that it is one of the three towns in Africa (next to Fez and Cairo) about which it could be said that "there is nothing in the world that could not be found here". Historical information is accompanied by the impressions and emotions of the author, which become part of her "pri­ vate mythology", and reveal a strange, magical, alien but, at the same ti­ me, curiously attractive town. Jarosław jot-Druiycki The Town, its Curiosities and their Collectors This essay examines the urban Tourist, whom the author calls "a collector of town Sehenswurdigkeiten" (German: things worth see­ ing, curiosities), and his peculiar manner of viewing the world via po­ ssessions. Drużycki cites the words of Edgar Morin: "The purchase of a few symbolic objects, known as souvenirs, such as miniature towers of Pisa [...], an ashtray [...] enables him [the tourist] to magically po­ ssess Spain or Italy". The object of the collection is the nostalgic "am­ bience of a city", produced for tourist purposes; hence, an important ro­ le is played by the "mystic, cult town", which emerged in "high" or po­ pular culture, a town "for a fleeting moment", a destination of contem­ porary peregrinations. Sławomir Sikora In Lisbon as in a Village Images of the town in the film Lisbon Story by Wim Wenders do not depict the titular town as an ordinary, conventional tourist site. It would be difficult to find picturesque vistas or places associated with the ci­ ty's history (churches, castles, monuments). The director creates an in­ dividualised vision of an archaic lane, a "village", one of whose sources might be the works of Fernando Pessoa. An even more important cause of such an operation could be an attempt to portray Lisbon as mythical, paradisiacal city, where time stands still, a town "withdrawn" in time. The author presents examples testifying to "archaisation"(both of Lis­ bon and Portugal), and although its justification could be sought in a j o ­ urney into "the history of the cinema" (the film was made upon its hun­ dredth anniversary), an even more significant pretext would be the allochronic discourse about the other ("anthropology is a science of other men in another time"), and its distance both in space and time, which, according to J. Fabian (Time and the Other), is universal in anthropolo­ gical description (although.evidently, not only). The author claims that by creating the image of Lisbon-Eden, Wenders conceives a nostalgic town of "our" childhood, a village, a paradox of a place that one would not so much want to visit as to return to. An integral part of the article is also a discussion on the connection between sound and image in the examined film. Jan Gondowicz Cartography and Certain Writers Old maps have something in common with recorded hallucination. The author indicates the connections between literature and journeys, and suggests that a study on Cartography and Certain Authors still rema­ ins unwritten. The perspective of this sketch should favour books, whose plot is composed of the journey. The author mentions several examples that could act as milestones in this endeavour; unfortunately, the only Po­ lish author would be Jan Potocki, with his The Saragassa Manuscript. Marek Oziewicz (Part I) What's so to be Found in Wardrobe? Parallel Worlds of C. S. Le­ wis's Chronicles ofNarnia The autor attempts to analyse parallel worlds describes by Lewis in his Chronicles of Narnia and focuses particularly on the issue of passa­ ge from one world to another Having initially classified "other realities" of the Chronicles into secondary and parallel worlds, the author concen­ trates on their status and characteristic features of their spatiotemporality. Attention is then drawn to magic places in which parallel realities overlap or cohere which broad background allows to examine the mecha­ nics of the characters' passages from one world to another. This done in the light of Eastern (and partly medieval) theory of the elements: space, air, fire, water and earth. In the main part of his work, the author proposes a classification of all instances of passage between different worlds present in the Chronicles into four categories: direct volitional, indirect volitional, direct nonvolitional and indirect nonvolitional. The division between volitional and nonvolitional passages is constructed upon the feelings which present themse­ lves to the characters during the procedure of passage, whereas the divi­ sion between direct and indirect ones—upon mutual relationship of the worlds between which the passage takes place. Drawing on examples from the Chronicles, the author endeavours to substantiate his thesis ap­ plying in his analysis the technique of gradation of sensory impressions Krystian Ыра Mythical Places and Journeys We publish two fragments from a diary by Krystian Lupa, the accla­ imed theatrical director. Both texts are connected with journeys: the first refers to travelling to a place connected with childhood, as well as the oneiros-like journey; the second is a reflection predominantly on space and travelling in Stalker, the film by Andrei Tarkovsky. Grzegorz Graff Miracles of Poland—Mythical Space, Mythical History Miracles of Poland is the title of more than ten volumes in a popular series about Polish historical and geographical lands and famous towns. The series was published in the inter-war period and written by renowned and highly regarded authors, who in a colourful and light manner descri­ bed the past, national heroic deeds, and ethnographic and geographical curiosities. In this unique panopticon, the attention of the anthropologist is drawn to the frequent abuse of nature and history, envisaged in a mythi­ cal manner. The varied group of symbols, stereotypes and romantic myths contained in the analysed texts compels to justify a truth fundamental for Polish history—the existence of a certain territory ascribed and offered by nature to the Poles, who only here can live happily and prosperously. The presented article is an attempt at outlining the area of cultural memory in which the texts of the discussed series could come into being. Maciej J. Dudziak The Ethnographies of Bruno Schulz. An Attempted Anthropological Interpretation of The Crocodile Street as an Analysis of the Town The author attempts to treat the belles lettres as a source of ethnogra­ phic knowledge; with this purpose in mind, he analyses 77!? Crocodile Street, a novel by Bruno Schulz. Dudziak performs a formal operation in­ tent on spanning a bridge between the belles lettres and scientific litera­ ture, in an attempt at seeking arguments which would remain in formal agreement with the principles of interpretative anthropology proposed by Clifford Geertz. In doing so, the author postulates that the source of eth­ nographic knowledge (in this case, the Schulz novel) does not necessari­ ly have to become the material of an analysis, which, after having rejec­ ted its literary nature as the "product of the writer's imagination", beco­ mes "useful" for ethnographic analysis/interpretation; already in itself, this source offers a sui generis ready anthropological interpretation, ren­ dered more profound by means of additional cultural reflection. In this manner, by making loose reference to the textualism of James Clifford, the author opts for granting ethnography the privilege of a possible con­ scious participation in literature as such. Albert Bajburin Semiotics Aspects of the Functioning of Objects The article discusses—in the form of general theses—select pro­ blems concerning the pragmatic of objects in archaic and traditional so­ ciety. The author accentuates the fact that man is constantly engaged in defining the semiotic status of the objects surrounding him. This attitude discloses itself in particular in commonly held conceptions about the si­ gnificance and prestige of a given object, i.e. its capability to symbolise something much more important. The process of determining semiotic status is automatic and, as a rule, takes place at the level of the subcon- 221 �sciousness. An example of a different assessment of the semiotic worth of an object can be a scheme of the distribution of the elements of cultu­ re between two spheres of "material" and "spiritual" culture. This fact te­ stifies that objects are ascribed a different semiotic status. At the same ti­ me, however, emphasis must be placed on the fact that in this case we de­ fine a certain "normative" semiotic status, which is composed of the ap­ praisals of our experiences in operating with this variety of objects. The author examines closely the semiotic aspect of the functioning of the ob­ ject by basing himself on a study by P. G. Bogatyniew about the functions of the folk costume. Stanisław Cichowicz Zeno's Koan In his History of Philosophy (vol. I I , section 2, chapter 2) G. W. He­ gel comments on an anecdote whose protagonist is the stoic Zeno, and which is cited by Cicero in Academic Books (IV 47); its theme is a les­ son given to readers and listeners with the aid of the movements of the master's hands, and concerning the essence of impression, experience, conception and knowledge. Without delving into a discussion on the faul­ tless commentary by Hegel, it is possible to perceive in the gestures and words of Zeno that which Buddhist teaching describes as Koan, i . e. a co­ nversation between a master and monks, the stating by the teacher of a certain truth in the presence of his pupils, and then presented to them by means of a puzzle in a manner not always discursive, but one which compels to intense meditation. An account of such an event is then intro­ duced into the tradition of teaching for the purpose of uplifting and illu­ minating future students, as in the case of Cicero and Hegel, unaware of the Buddhist paradigm of Zen. Jerzy S. Wasilewski The Secret History of Objects This article is an attempted reconstruction of the fate of things, and, simultaneously, the people who handled them. Looking at an object di­ splayed in an ethnographic museum, the visitor will not find out anything about its fate, past history and meaning for the people who possessed i t — "from the producer to the collector, who took it from its own context and installed it into his own, granting new meanings and endowing with new emotions". Wasilewski reconstructs the presumed path of "three disks", which he purchased years ago at a bazaar in Uhlan Bator. The first is a copper medallion-coin with a Russian two-headed eagle, the date 1863-1864 and the inscription " Za usmirenie pol'skago miatezha" (for stifling the Polish rebellion). The second is a coin with a square opening in the cen­ tre, which, after being excluded from circulation, served as a weight, to which tufts of sheep fur were attached, creating a pompon used for play­ ing "tebek", a game consisting of kicking it into the air as long as possi­ ble without interruption. The last mysterious disk, of unknown usage, is made of jade: "the extreme ascetic quality of the object could serve the personification of abstract values: the ideal, the absolute, transcendence". Objects force us to think about eternity in both directions—the future, longevity, and the past, eternity. To be or to have? "To have" (a collection of objects) carries the same spiritual value as "to be" (a collector of objects). Leonid Stolowicz The Mirror as a Semiotic, Epistemological and Axiological Model In its capacity as a universal instrument, the mirror conceals astoni­ shing properties. It reflects the real world and creates its supra-real, illu­ sory counterpart. The "looking-glass" (L. Carroll) reflects and transforms reality. The left side becomes the right. Mirrored reality creates a sym­ metrical supplementation of the reality found on the other side of the mir­ ror. The article comprises a brief discussion of the motif of the mirror in literature, art, philosophy and culture in general, including its mythologi­ cal functions. Yuriy Tsivyan The X-ray, Surgery and the Microscope in the Semiotics of the Ear­ ly Cinema The author discusses the coexistence of the titular inventions with the cinema, which, nota bene , originated in 1895, the same year as the X ray The Operation by Doctor Doyen (1898), Le dejeneur du savant (1905), in which a scholar eats his breakfast while simultaneously examining it under a microscope, or the film about the reaction of red corpuscles to the Reirich and Commandone microorganisms, all shown at fairs, comprised an unveiling of the "invisible world". Tsivyan concludes that the depicted inventions undermined the cultural-semiotic equilibrium between presentation and its object. The inven­ tions signified transcendence beyond the boundaries of everyday semio- 222 sis. By becoming part of the situation of a screening, the X ray and the mi­ croscope signified a limit beyond which "life as it is" transforms itself in­ to a spectacle of death. Tomasz Rakowski The X-rayed Body—the Magic of Radiography The essay deals with the concept of the human body obtained thanks to circulating X-rays or other medical examinations. The very attainment of such an image is embroiled in the mythological Journey, crowned with winning an Object that offers insight into that what is concealed, and in a Place which is not quite of this world—I have in mind The Ma­ gic Mountain by Thomas Mann. It is not surprising that the attitude of the author's interlocutors to images of their interiors is frequently irratio­ nal. The X-ray is also a point of departure towards a different manner of thinking about our body, and an experiencing of its presence in a way whose merits can be discovered in F. Bacon and U. Merlau-Ponly. Quite possibly, it produces associations leading in an entirely different direc­ tion. Magdalena Radkowska The Object, the Journey and the Mythical Place This attempt at a description of cyberspace and the Internet refers to literature. Apparently, new phenomena in our culture, associated with the computer, have much in common with 77ie Crocodile Street and Cinna­ mon Shops by Bruno Schultz, who described a possible, imaginary reali­ ty, which the computer net endows with shape and well-defined images. Cyberspace can be perceived within the wide context of eternal human strivings, dreams and visions. Strolling, travelling, sailing and surfing are the most frequently encountered terms used to describe movement in the Internet. Are they merely simple metaphors or do they conceal actual si­ milarity to true sea and land expeditions? Is the computer only a techni­ cal instrument, an alternative to reality, or does it render assistance in the realisation of that which is proposed by the imagination? Those are the questions which the author tries to answer by resorting to descriptions of relations between man, his dreams and longings, on the one hand, and cy­ berspace, on the other. Maciej J. Dudziak Micro-and Macro Markets. Sketches from the Anthropology of a Confrontation With the assistance of a comparison of two types of functioning mar­ kets, situated within two different contexts, the author tries to capture their specific cultural atmosphere. Upon the basis of observations con­ ducted in a small-town market and its environs, the author contrasts its openness, clearly outlined social roles and "culture-creating" role with the large-town supermarket, its anonymity, high level of specialization, the obliteration of social roles and extra-territorial nature. By means of a comparative analysis of both types of markets, the au­ thor tries to construct a metaphor of present-day culture based on non-ho­ mogeneity, opposition and a multitude of applied models of behaviour Magdalena Radkowska Direct Sale on a Visit This mini-tale contains copious footnotes about the sale of cosmetics at home. The author proposes a attempt at an anthropological explanation of ways to influence clients and entice them to buy a product, as well as advertisement and manipulation. Emphasis is placed on problems con­ nected with the body and the relation towards it in contemporary culture Shop on Maisel Street, by M i с h a 1 A j v a z, the Czech wnter and poet is a fragment of his novel (under the same title). Krzysztof Cibor The Walkman. A History of a Certain Transmitter—the Present of a Certain Transmission The transmitter mentioned in the text is the popular portable cassette player. The author proposes an outline of its history without delving into technological details or following every step of the road pursued by man­ kind in order to create this simple device. The text rather throws light on the cultural context in which the "walkman" could come into being as a unique phenomenon. This context has place for, i . a. the poetics of the video clip, concrete music, Igor Stravinsky and psychiatric drugs. Wiesław Szpilka Bicycle, Skis, Boots The mountain bike, skis and hiking boots can become the objects of fashion and "trendiness", but in this text they interest the author as �totally asymbolic objects which not so much provide food for thought as radically force us to face the truth. They co-create a new existence and constitute a condition for initiation, a different perception of rea­ lity. Tomasz Rakowski Three Months in a Fitness Club. The History of Order, its Malady and the Unknown This essay attempts to formulate a response to the fashion of body building, and all types of fitness exercises, to which the author himself succumbed. The building of a harmonious body is connected with a qu­ est for Pythagorean hidden proportions, a certain ideal harmony. Practi­ ces associated with the "modern" body also serve the purpose of subju­ gation. This image disappears in the very pursuit of a discipline, and in its stead there emerges frantic activity which no longer recalls its target and follows quite unrealistic paths. Such fierceness and a growing sequ­ ence of dichotomy and unconquerable aporia incline towards a search for the Greatest equal to the Smallest, That what is neither This nor That, and Nullity, where all aporias lose their raison d'etre. Tomoho Umeda In The electric guitar, Umeda describes the history of this musical in­ strument and its significance for contemporary culture, treating the gui­ tar as a pretext for contrasting two eras in music—rock and post-rock. Zuzanna Grebecka-Cwiek A Lifelike Nail? An Equine Dose of Hyperrealism The presented description and analysis deal with two objects: a con­ crete cast of an Arab horse, which is a sui generis garden sculpture, and a stuffed horse, which comprises one of the elements of a diploma work presented by Katarzyna Kozyra at the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw. The common feature of both inanimate objects is the fact that the artists intended them to appear "lifelike". The author draws attention to the dif­ ferences between the two realisations. The garden sculpture aims at hy­ perrealism; it deceives in the hope that deceit will become truth. The "sculpture" devised by Kozyra is situated in an opposition between life and death: the once living and now stuffed horse was, according to the ar­ tist's premises, to inspire reflection on death and killing. Dorota Hall A Pilgrimage to the Old-New Holy Land The article discusses the journey made by persons connected with the New Age Movement. By disregarding geographic distances, the contem­ porary world accentuates the destination rather than the journey itself. The author thus limits herself to a description (initial, and not supported by conscientious studies) of the destination of pilgrimages undertaken by supporters of New Age, and writes about places which they recognise as holy. The latter include ancient cultural centres and regions situated w i ­ thin the range of the impact of a strong electromagnetic field. The special properties of the site do not have to be linked exclusively with its geogra­ phic location—the very contacts with transcendence generate, or at least enhance holiness. Anna E. Kubiak Dirty Teddies of Pure Relations, or on Nostalgia in Culture The titular teddy bears are part of the paradigm of nostalgia in cultu­ re, which the author describes upon the example of a flea market. Trea­ ted metaphorically, it reflects the situation of contemporary culture, who­ se characteristic features include detraditionalisation, a mixture of cultu­ res, and the incessant process of the transition of artifacts between gen­ res and traditions. The flea market, envisaged as a metaphor, expresses also a certain vision of culture described by, e. g. Clifford, Rosaldo, Ricoeur and Steward, which opposes the vision presented by the metaphor of the museum and the supermarket. The text considers motifs of nostal­ gia in culture as well as in the anthropology of culture itself by referring to the example of a discussion about the New Age exploitation of tradi­ tion. Krzysztof Lipka "Shrukoy" (Szrukoj) This is a journey to the history of the perception and imagination of a child. The titular word, heard by the author in a lullaby sung to him du­ ring his childhood (text: M . Lermontov) appeared to be repelling and ter­ rifying. Subsequently, childish imagination ascribed it to a mysterious object discovered among household brie a brae (reproduced in the dra­ wing). Only much later did the author find out the purpose of this puz­ zling object and the origin of the strange and rough-sounding shrukoy, produced by a fusion of Russian words. Irena Huml The Culture-creating Role of the Academy of Fine Aits in Warsaw in the Town and on a National Scale. Select Problems. Inauguration Lecture at the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts. Academic Year 1998/1999. Krystyna Duniec Ibsen in Television Theatre In spite of the fact that contemporary manners are so different from the reality of Ibsen's plays, it does not invalidate the plays themselves. Television in particular makes them manifest their accuracy and attracti­ veness to the modern audience. T V Theatre is in Poland a very special and quite exeptional "institution". For more then forty years now it gives its premieres for the largest possible audience every Monday at 8 p.m. on Channel 1. The most prominent Polish theatre directors and actors work for TV Theatre. This seems to decide about the unquestionable success of "Shakespeare of the North" on TV. Ibsen, considered as the playwri­ ght of the actor, provides modern theatre with great, realistic parts. And so his plays satisfy traditional expectations of T V audience, who de­ mands classical, already verified plays in realistic productions compati­ ble with the realistic medium of television, presented by the best actors, who otherwise would not appear in the province of Poland. The variety of moral attitudes as presented in his plays, the timeless truth of emotions and defending of individual identity make Ibsen an exeptional TV playwright. Polish contemporary drama involved in poli­ tics provides us with flat characters deprived of any individual traces. At the same time T V Theatre willingly stages Ibsen's plays (in the 80s and 90s there were for example: Rosmersholm, Hedda Gabler, A Doll's Ho­ use, John Gabriel Borkman) casting stars and proving that even in the t i ­ mes when the majority of the artists look everywhere for immediate po­ litical contexts, it is still worth to remind certain basic human problems and search for truth in culture and philosophy. T V productions which in­ vite Ibsen from his oldfashioned parlour to the setting of film studio or railway station, give a chance to pzerceive psychological, existential and social attractiveness of Ibsen's ideas. Elżbieta Waga Eternal Iconosophy In June 1997 the Kordegarda Gallery in Warsaw featured an exhibi­ tion of works by the Cracow-based artist Tadeusz Gustaw Wiktor. Altho­ ugh his paintings did not stir my imagination, the enormous graphicworks, at first glance somber, but actually pulsating with an inner light, made a tremendous impression. The latter feeling soon changed into mar­ ked distaste once I reached for fragments of the theoretical declarations made by the artist, presented in the exhibition catalogue; this holds true especially for the text entitled Eternal Iconosophy as Cognition via Pa­ inting. In grandiloquent and excessively knowledgeable terms Wiktor ou­ tlines his conception of art as Eternal Iconosophy, conceived as one of the offshoots of Eternal Philosophy. More, he describes himself as an Iconosopher, pursuing "absolute painting", whose "cognitive-meditative 'tar­ get' is the expression of the Absolute by means of painting". My own re­ flections on the absurdity of a literal translation of theoretical concep­ tions (which in Wiktor's case bear the symptoms of inner weakness) in­ to creative activity coincided with the freshly read and magnificent book by Prof. Wiesław Juszczak Fragmenty [Fragments]. Within the context of the discussed exhibition, which is basically an interesting confrontation of the theoretical and artistic statements made by Wiktor, three theses contained in Juszczak's deliberations on art appear to be particularly im­ portant and apt: - "art is self-restricting, since it assumes reflection about itself; - "the content of symbolism is embedded in the artwork regardless of the symbolic sense intentionally inscribed within it"; - it is impossible to transgress art; true, it comprises a striving to­ wards that which is uncognizable, but can lead us only to a certain boun­ dary not to be crossed. In this issue, we begin to publish Diary of 1914 by B r o n i s ł a w M a l i n o w s k i (the immediate continuation of which is A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term); at the same time, we continue the presentation of his earlier Diaries. The issue also includes an article by D a n i e l G e r o u 1 d, an outstanding expert on Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (pa­ inter, man of letters, philosopher and photographer), entitled Witkacy's Journey to the Tropics: a Ceylonese Itinerary, a detailed reconstruc­ tion of the journey made by Malinowski and Witkiewicz (Witkacy) to Australia. Learning about the outbreak of the first world war, Witkacy re­ turned home, while Malinowski continued on his way to the Trobriand Islands, which, to cite his own words, were to turn him into a Joseph Conrad of anthropology. 223 �NOTY O AUTORACH Michał Ajvaz - ur. 1945 w Pradze, prozaik, poeta, krytyk i eseista czeski. Ukoń­ czył studia na Wydziale Filozoficznym Uniwersytetu Karola. Imał się później różnych zajęć: byt robotnikiem, nocnym stróżem, dozorcą i pracow­ nikiem analizującym jakość wody. Od 1996 r. pracuje jako redator tygodni­ ka „Literami noviny". Zadebiutował tomem wierszy Morderstwo w hotelu ..Intercontinental" (1989). Dobiut prozatorski to tom opowiadań Powrót sta­ rego warana (1991). Pierwsza i jak dotąd jedyną powieścią Ajvaza jest Inne miasto (1993). Ostatnio ogłosił Turkusowy orzeł (1997). Polskie przekłady prozy i poezji drukował w licznych pismach, m.in. „Fraza", „Krasnogróda", „Kresy", „Zeszyły Literackie". Albert Bajburin (ur. 1947) - ukończył filologię rosyjską na Uniwersytecie w Tartu (Estonia) w 1972. Habilitował się w 1995 r. Pracownik naukowy In­ stytutu Etnografii Rosyjskiej Akademii Nauk. Autor szeregu prac z zakresu semiotyki kultury ludowej. Wydal m.in. książkę Żiliszcze w ohriadach i priedstawlieniach wostocznych słowian. Leningrad 1983. „Polska Sztuka Ludowa" (nr 3/1990) opublikowała W sprawie opisu struktur słowiańskio tuału budowniczego. ry­ Zbigniew Benedyktowicz - antropolog kultury, redaktor „Kontekstów". Kie­ rownik Pracowni Antropologii Kultury, Filmu i Sztuki Audiowizualnej. Au­ tor prac z zakresu wyobraźni symbolicznej i antropologii współczesnej m.in. książki (z Danutą Benedyktowicz) Dom w tradycji ludowej. Wrocław 1992 . Krzysztof Cibor - student KEiAK UW Stanisław Cichowicz - filozof, tłumacz, edytor, poeta, artysta. Autor książki Fi­ lozof i istnienie. U podstaw teodyceii G. Leibniza, PWN 1970, Est modus in Rebus, Tow. Muzyki Współczesnej 1987, Moje ucho a biężyc. Diagnozy i dywagacje, Wyd. Słowo, Obraz i Terytoria 1996, Czy można rzepak? 67 haiku, Wyd. BWA przesadzić 1996. Jurij Cywian - historyk kina z wczesnych etapów rozwoju, absolwent anglisty­ ki uniwersytetu w Rydze, pracownik naukowy Instytutu Folkloru, Literatury i Sztuki Łotewskiej Akademii Nauk, współpracownik tartusko-moskiewskiej szkoły semiotyki kultury. Opublikował m.in. Istoriczeskaja recepcija kino. Kiniematograf w Rossiji IH96-I930, Riga 1991, Dialog s ekranom, Talinin 1994 (wraz z J. Łotmanem). Obecnie wykłada na Uniwersytecie Kalifornij­ skim (Los Angeles). Dariusz Czaja - etnolog, studia UJ. Napisał pracę doktorską o symbolu w fil­ mie. Pracuje w Instytucie Etnologii UJ i w redakcji „Kontekstów". Redaktor książki Mitologie popularne. Witold Dobrowolski - pracuje w Muzeum Narodowym, gdzie kieruje zbiorami sztuki antycznej, profesor Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego w Instytucie Arche­ ologii; specjalizacja ceramika grecka i sztuka etruska. Autor licznych artyku­ łów oraz książek: Sztuka Etruska (PIW), Malarstwo etruskie (PIW), Mity morskie antyku (PWN). Jarosław jot-Drużycki - przygotowuje pracę magisterską w Katedrze Etnologii UW. Redaktor pisma poświęconego kulturze miasta „KurWar". Zajmuje się antropologią miasta. Pracuje w „Kontekstach". Maciej J. Dudziak - student etnologii na Uniwersytecie Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Krystyna Duniec - adiunkt w Zakładzie Teatru Instytutu Sztuki PAN. Autorka rozpraw i artykułów z zakresu historii teatru i teatru współczesnego, książki Kaprysy Prospera. Szekspirowskie inscenizacje Leona Schillera. Daniel C. Gerould - profesor City University of New York, historyk literatury i teatru, komparatysta i tłumacz. Wykładał w różnych uniwersytetach amery­ kańskich i europejskich, m.in. w Uniwersytecie Warszawskim (anglistyka). Autor wielu publikacji dotyczących literatury, dramatu i teatru amerykań­ skiego i europejskiego, tłumacz, wydawca i komentator Witkacego, autor książki Witkacy. SI Witkiewicz as an Imaginative Writer (1981, wyd. pol. Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz jako pisarz, 1981). Ogłosił m.in. Galant and Li­ bertine. Eighteenth-Century French Divertissement and Parades (1983), Do­ ubles, Demons and Dreamers. An International Collection of Symbolist Dra­ ma (1985), Guillotine. Its Legend and Lore (1992, wyd. pol. Historia giloty­ ny, 1996). Tłumacz Przybyszewskiego i Micińskiego, wydawca „Slavic and East European Performance. Drama, Theatre, Film". Marzena Gierga - etnolog (studia UJ). Studia doktoranckie w Instytucie Etno­ logii UJ; przygotowuje pracę doktorską poświęconą związkom antropologii z historią i literaturą w oparciu o Kroniki włoskie Stendhala. Dwukrotna sty­ pendystka do Wioch, staż w Instytucie Antropologii Kultury w Sienie. Jan Condowicz - krytyk, tłumacz, wydawca, współpracownik „Tygodnika Po­ wszechnego"; wydal m.in. Marmur Josifa Broskiego, Słownik komunałów Gustawa Flauberta, Zoohgię fantastyczną uzupełnioną. Mieszka w Warsza­ wie. Grzegorz Graff - etnolog (absolwent UJ). Pracuje w Muzeum Etnograficznym im Seweryna Udzieli w Krakowie. Zuzanna Grebecka-Ćwiek - studentka KEiAK i MISH UW. Teresa Grzybkowska - historyk sztuki o wszechstronnym dorobku i zaintereso­ waniach, założycielka i dyrektor Zakładu Historii Sztuki w Gdańsku, profe­ sor Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. Autorka licznych wystaw, min. wystawy Świat Obrazów Jacka Malczewskiego (Kraków 1996, Radom 1997) i Aurea Porta Rzeczypospolitej (Gdańsk 1997). Dorota Hall - studentka KEiAK UW Zbigniew Herbert - (t 1998) jeden z nawybitniejszych poetów polskich: autor min. takich zbiorów wierszy Elegia na odejście, Hermes, pies i gwiazda. Struna światła. Raport z oblężonego miasta, Rovigio, oraz zbiorów esejów 0 kulturze i sztuce Barbarzyńca w ogrodzie i Martwa natura z wędzidłem. Maria Janion - historyk literatury i historyk idei, krytyk literacki. Profesor IBL PAN, wykładowca na UW. W latach 1956-89 zajęcia w WS Pedagogicznej w Gdańsku, a następnie na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim. Opublikowała m.in. Zygmunt Krasiński, debiut i dojrzałość (1962), Romantyzm. Studia o ideach 1 sylu (1969), Romantyzm. Rewolucja. Marfaizm. Kolokwia gdańskie (1972), Hermeneutyka. Poznanie i terapia (1974), Gorączka romantyczna (1975), Literatura wobec wojny i okupacji (1976), Odnajdywanie znaczeń (1980), Seria Transgresje. Czas formy otwartej; Wobec zla (1989), Życie pośmiertne Konrada Wallenroda (1990), Projekt krytyki fantazmatycznej (1991), Czy bę­ dziesz wiedział, co przeżyłeś; Kobiety i duch inności (1996), Płacz generała. Eseje o wojnie (1998). Agnieszka Kamińska - studentka KEiAK UW Anna E. Kubiak - antropolog kultury, adiunkt w Instytucie Filozofii i Socjolo­ gii PAN. Autorka pracy na temat ruchów religijnych p.t. Delicje i lewa ręka Kryszny (IFiS, Warszawa 1997). Prowadzi badania nad holistycznymi idea­ mi i praktykami (New Age). Zygmunt Kubiak - filolog, znawca kultury antycznej, eseista, tłumacz; tłuma­ czył m.in. Wyznania św. Augustyna, Eneidę Wergiliusza, poezję angielską i nowogrecką, (m.in. pełne wydanie przekładów poezji Kawafisa), wydal ostatnio: Przestrzeń dzieł wiecznych (1993), Kawafis Aleksandryjczyk (1995), Brewiarz Europejczyka (1996), Mitologia Greków i Rzymian (1997) - ta ostatnia byta nominowana do Nagrody NIKE (zwyciężyła w plebiscycie czytelników). Grażyna Kubica-Heller - jest pracownikiem Zakładu Antropologii w Instytu­ cie Socjologii UJ. Jest autorką książki Luteranie na Śląsku Cieszyńskim oraz wspólredaktorką tomu Malinowski Between Two Worlds, CUP 1988. Intere­ suje się problematyką mniejszości religijnych oraz biografią i twórczością Bronisława Malinowskiego. Mieszka w Krakowie i Ustroniu. Krzysztof Lipka - muzykolog, historyk sztuki, literat; autor powieści filozoficz­ nej Pensjonat Barataria; redaktor w Polskim Radiu BIS. Krystian Lupa - ukończy! grafikę na Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie i Reżyserię Teatralną w Wyższej Szkole Teatralnej w Krakowie. Reżyser w Teatrze Starym w Krakowie (1978-1998). Początkowo specjalizował się w utworach Witkacego i Gombrowicza, a następnie w literaturze niemiecko­ języcznej kręgu austriackiego (Musil, Broch, Bernhardt, Rilke), którą niejed­ nokrotnie sam tłumaczył i adaptował na scenie. Profesor Państwowej Wy­ ższej Szkoły Teatralnej w Krakowie na wydziałach aktorskim i reżyserskim. Marta Miskowiec - absolwentka etnologii UJ. Pracuje w Muzeum Fotografii w Krakowie Marek Oziewicz - anglista, literaturoznawca, absolwent Instytutu Filologii An­ gielskiej we Wrocławiu. Obecnie doktorant 1FA Uniwersytetu Wrocławskie­ go, przygotowuje pracę doktorską na temat Kronik narnijskkh CS. Lewisa. Andrzej Pilichowski-Ragno - absolwent filologii polskiej (UJ), fotograf, czlo nek SPAF Magdalena Radkowska - studentka KEiAK i polonistyki UW. Tomasz Rakowski - student KEiAK UW i Akademii Medycznej w Warszawie. Sławomir Sikora - etnolog (studia UW). Zajmuje się antropologią filmu i foto­ grafii. Lech Sokół - docent w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, zastępca dyrektora ds. nauko­ wych, wykładowca Akademii Teatralnej w Warszawie, historyk dramatu i te­ atru, komparatysta. Autor publikacji o Witkacym, Strinbergu i Ibsenie, m.in. Groteska w teatrze S. I. Witkiewicza (1972), August Strinberg (1981), Witka­ cy i Strinberg: dalecy i bliscy (1995). Leonid Stołowicz (ur. 1929) - ukończy! filozofię na Uniwersytecie w Leningra­ dzie (1952), habilitował się w 1965 г., kierownik katedry filozofii na Uniwer­ sytecie w Tartu. Autor licznych prac estetyki. Wiesław Szpilka - etnolog (studia UJ), studia doktoranckie w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, pisze pracę doktorską poświęconą etnologicznej interpretacji kultury masowej. Mieszka w Kościelisku. Tomoho Umeda - student KEiAK UW Elżbieta Waga - ukończyła Wydział Grafiki warszawskiej ASP (dyplom z wy­ różnieniem z grafiki warsztatowej w pracowni prof. Rafała Strenta; aneks do dyplomu: malarstwo w pracowni śp. prof. Janusza Przybylskiego i rysunek u prof. Juliana Rączko). Miała dwie wystawy indywidualne i brała udział w licznych zbiorowych. Obecnie jest studentką w SNS IFiS PAN. Zajmuje się neoplatonizmem i jego późniejszym dziedzictwem. Jerzy Sławomir Wasilewski - etnolog, doktor habilitowany, pracuje w Katedrze Etnologii i Antropologii Kulturowej UW. W latach 1971 -80 byt uczestnikiem corocznej ekspedycji IHKM PAN do Mongolii. Prowadził też penetrację et­ nograficzną innych krajów Azji. Autor książek: Podróż do piekieł, rzecz Ł o szamańskich misteriach, W-wa 1979, Tabu a paradygmaty etnologii, W-wa 1989. Jerzy Wojciechowski - historyk sztuki (studia UW), od 1989 r. pracuje w Gabi­ necie Rycin Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej w Warszawie. Zajmuje sę rysunkiem europejskim, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem rysunku włoskiego od XVI do XVIII w. Publikował w kraju i zagranicą. Tomasz Żukowski - absolwent Polonistyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, doktorant Instytutu Badań Literackich PAN. Zajmuje się powojenną poezją polską. �O podróżach, rzeczach, miejscach mitycznych w „Polskiej Sztuce Ludowej" i w „Kontekstach" pisali min.: nr nr nr nr nr 3-4/1985: Antoni Kroh, Łemkowszczyzna w wierszach Jerzego Harasymowicza 1-2/1986: Sławomir Sikora, Cmentarz. Antropologia pamięci. 1-2/1988: Ludwik Stomma, Piwnica pod Baranami 3/1988: Wojciech Zaleski, Kapliczki błagalne i święte sosny z okolic Supraśla 1-2/1989: Monika Krajewska, Cmentarze żydowskie w Polsce: nagrobki i epitafia: Bogdana Pilichowska, Krakowskie zabawki odpustowe przedstawiające Żydów nr 3/1990: Grzegorz Olesiak, Wyobrażenie „malej ojczyzny". Morfologia idealnego świata, Jerzy Bartmiński, Ojczyzna w pieśniach i wier­ szach chłopskich, Maria Kozłowa, Lamenty po wysiedlonej wsi, Eleonora Bergman, Dom cadyka w Kocku, Ryszard Ciarka, Święty obraz w szarym bloku (szkic do scenariusza filmowego). Danuta i Zbigniew Benedyktowiczowie, Symbolika domu w tradycji ludowej (cz, I) nr 4/1990: Danuta i Zbigniew Benedyktowiczowie, Symbolika domu w tradycji ludowej (cz. II), Zbigniew Dalewski, Zakładziny: obrzęd i mit. 0 słowiańsk ch zwyczajach i wierzeniach związanych z budową domu i zakładaniem miasta. Jakub Bułat, Przestrzeń sakralna domu wiej­ skiego albo okno i stół. Hanna Szewczyk-Wierzbicka, Semiotyka stołu w przestrzeni izby weselnej. Roch Sulima, Między Rajem a śmietni­ kiem (Ikonosfera warzywnych ogródków) nr 1/1991: Ludwik Stomma, Uroda ludzkiej pomyłki, Zbigniew Benedyktowicz, Widmo środka świata. Przyczynek do antropologii współcze­ sności nr 2/1991: Maria Giedz, Święta Góra Grabarka nr 3-4/1991: Michał Klinger, Podróż do klasztoru Św. Onufrego w dniu jego święta (24/25 czerwca, gdy schodzi się tam mnóstwo narodu), Krzysztof Czyżewski, List z podróży. Krzysztof Czyżewski, Podróż na Wschód nr 3-4/1992: James Clifford, Samokreacja etnograficzna: Conrad i Malinowski, Teresa Rutkowska, Wędrówki Felliniego. Małgorzata Bara­ nowska, Pocztówka masowa i fotografia uczuć. Dariusz Czaja, Wenecja i śmierć: konteksty symboliczne, T. Jefferson Kline, Orfeusz transcendujący. „Ostatnie tango w Paryżu". Ludwik Stomma, Antropologia kultury, historia i Kubuś Puchatek. Zbigniew Benedyktowicz, „Uciekające zdjęcia ". Rovnowa z Piotrem Skrzyneckim. Piotr Skrzynecki, Szkic do scenariusz filmowego pt. „O Groblach na Groblach" nr 1/1993: James Clifford, O kolekcjonowaniu sztuki i kultury, Michał Luboradzki, Daty, wydarzenia, komentarze [umierające syreny], Roch Sulima, Przyczynek do semiotyki śmierci [umierające syreny] nr 3-4/1993: Stanisław Stomma, Wilno. Vytautas Landsbergis. Vilnius Grigorij Kanowicz, Wilno, jakego już nie ma, Tamara Gordon, Wilno Żydów, Halina Kobeckaitć, Karaimi w Wilnie i Trokach. Aleksander Jac­ kowski, Wilno - Vilnius nr 1-2/1994: Umberto Eco, Przemysł i przemoc seksualna w społeczności doliny Padu, Czesław Robotycki, „Piwnica pod Baranami" - an­ tropologiczna interpretacja formuły kabaretu. Wiesław Szpilka, Raj utracony. Joanna Sarnecka, Gusła na Czarnem. Magdalena MichalskaCiarka, Warszawski Krzyż z kwiatów nr 3-4/1994: Andrzej Różycki, Notatki z podróży po Polsce. Jeremy Rifkin, Anatomia cheeseburgera nr 3-4/1995: Marek Nowakowski, Miasto. Grażyna Borkowska, Kresy zachodnie: genius loci. Dariusz Czaja, Wenecja jest kobietą, Ludwik Lewin, Ludwik Stomma, Paryż za dwa Ludwiki nr 1-2/1996: Władysław Panas, Brama, Witold Chmielewski, Środek świata w Lublinie. Sławomir Sikora, Jak to się robi w Nowym Jorku? Wystawy (NY), Maryla Sitkowska, Sześć godzin temu (NY), Małgorzata Baranowska, Warszawa. Miesiące, lata, wieki (Fragment) nr 3-4/1997: ***, Jeruzalem. Jeruzalem. Z Narmi Michejdą rozmawiają Małgorzata Baranowska i Maria Jęczmyk. Bohdan Pociej, Siedem bram Jerozolimy nr 2/1998: Kirsten Hastrup, Poza antropologią, antropolog jako przedmiot przedstawienia dramatycznego. Henryk Jurkowski, Lalki w rytua­ le, Agnieszka Kamińska, Tamagotchi - ogniwo między lalką a zwierzątkiem. Wirtualne cmentarze dla cyber-stworzonka. : O Bronisławie Malinowskim pisalis'my już w numerze 3-4/1992: James Clifford, Samokreacja etnograficzna: Conrad i Malinowski w numerze 1-2/1997: Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Spotkanie z córką Bronisława Malinowskiego i jego biografem, Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Roz­ mowa z Heleną Wayne, Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Rozmowa z Michaelem Youngiem, Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Wpływ kobiet na życie 1 dzieło Bronisława Malinowskiego, Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Flisie Masson, Terence Wright, Antropolog jako artysta: fotografie Malinowskiego z Trobriandów w numerze 3-4/1997: Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Elisie Masson , Bronisław Mali­ nowski, Pisane dla Anieli Zagórskiej w numerze 1/1998: Maria Ossowska, Bronisława Malinowskiego „Dziennik w ścisłym znaczeniu tego słowa". Clifford Geertz, Zaświadczają­ ce Ja. Dzieci Malinowskiego, Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Wstęp do dzienników Bronisława Malinowskiego 1908-1913, Bronisław Malinow­ ski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 1 w numerze 2/1998: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki. Zeszyt 2 Z powyżej wymienionych numerów są jeszcze do nabycia w Dziale Wydawniczym IS PAN ul. Długa 28, Warszawa następujące egzemplarze: 3-4/1991, 3-4/1993, 3-4/1994, 3-4/1995, 1-2/1996, 3-4/1996. 1-2/1997, 3^t/l997, 1/1998, 2/1998 Prenumerata „Kontekstów. Polskiej Sztuki Ludowej" za rok 1999 kwartalna - 5 zł; półroczna - W zł; roczna - 20 zł Wpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmuje firma AMOS, Warszawa, ul. Zuga 12 Konto: P K O BP V I I I Oddział Warszawa nr 10201084-77578-270-1-111 oraz UJCH, konto: P B K S.A. o/Warszawa, nr 11101053-16-551-2700-1-67 (z zaznaczeniem: prenumerata „Kontekstów") Prenumerata ze zleceniem wysyłki za granicę jest 150% droższa (AMOS); podrożona o realny koszt wysyłki (RUCH). �W najbliższych numerach: Małgorzata Dziewulska, Tadeusz Kantor. Drugie życie przedmiotów Dariusz Czaja, Krzesło. Szkic do portretu Krzysztof Cibor, Nieistniejący film, nieistniejące miasto, nieistniejące życie. Propedeutyka wędrówki poza słownik Artur Setniewski, Świetlica, rzecz o dwóch królestwach Joanna Tokarska-Bakir, „Ślepy bibliotekarz". 0pisemnym wymiarze ustności Maksymilian Rejmer, Święty czas i święta przestrzeń Marc Shell, 0 Kej, czyli Obracaj ostrożnie Lew Łosiew, WenecjaJosifa Brodskiego Ireneusz Kamiński, Autobus Agnieszka Makarewicz, Piłka Tomoho Umeda, Hiperaudiofilo... Danuta Bolikowska, Dym Katarzyna Kuszyńska, Papieros i popielniczka Marceli Zygała, Fumare humanum est. Krótki leksykon używek tytoniowych wokół nas Marcin Szporko, Krystyna Gieryszewska, Zielone liście na ulicach Berlina Tomoho Umeda, Polifonia i polifoniczność Dorota Hall, Uciekanie przy ekranie Janusz Barański, Pluralis non maiestaticus, czyli ludzie jak rzeczy Dorota Kołakowska, Planeta Diana - próba analizy reakcji na śmierć księżnej Walii Magdalena Radkowska, Hiperrealnośc Lary. Lara Hiperrealności Jacek Olędzki, Zgredy, rule i ulotna sztuka niewinności Jarosław jot-Drużycki, Vlepka albo interpretacja swobodna Marcin Kafar, Żyć w rytmie 230 bitów na minutę Dorota Gut, Po drugiej stronie ekranu Iwona Rentflejsz, Dlaczego Henryk V, czyli krótka historia trzech premier Anna Wieczorkiewicz, Czyja jest kultura, czyje jest muzeum Wiesława Wierzchowska, Ireneusz Krzemiński, Jacek Sempoliński, Stefan Starczewski, 0 Obrazach ludowych Aleksandra Jackowskiego Jurij Łotman, Obraz odwrócony Wiesław Szpilka, Podróż: „Pod osłoną nieba" I � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/e5b5dc037a37794bcf3a737a22eb2688.pdf 160c4acf568258df3a7ff944ff0e903e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:2792 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2601 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles; Noty o autorach / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1999 t.53 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1999 t.53 z.3, s.111-112 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY OF ARTICLE Marc Shell OK or Handle with Care Originally this article appeared in the Experimental Scholarship section of "Common Knowledge" (no. 2, Winter 1996). Łukasz Kiepuszewski The Twilight of Seeing and the Seeing of Twilight The point of departure for this article are the words of Paul Cezanne, who at the end of his life, while studying the motif of Mt. St. Victoire,' was in the habit of complaining about physical frailties and oblem's with seeing. Apparently, those obstacles should not be dcrstood literally. In his analysis, the author arrived at the conclusion that the perceived image is a sui generis extinguishing of light and turning it into a shroud and protection against the directness of the thing in itself. The act of seeing, therefore, no longer signifies grasping the direct nature of things, but protection against its blinding glare. In twilight, the perception of a work of art - a painting - is rendered metaphorical as a phenomenon of perceptibility itself. The metaphor of twilight defined a certain status of the historical quality of the painting, revealing historicity not as a certain construction of history, but as the experience of radical temporality, in which perception lakes part. Such seeing participates in perceiving the process of seeing. Thus comprehended, the state of blindness is not so much non-seeing, as the perception of seeing. Elżbieta Wolicka History as Genealogy An in-depth analysis of the essay by F. Nietzsche: On the Usefulness and Harmfulness of History for Life , presenting the most significant views of this philosopher on the question of historicism, essential for nineteenth- century humanities. Historicism is conceived both as historical knowledge and the history in which man participates. The author of the article examines in detail three manners of participation in history, distinguished by Nietzsche: 1) the active person, 2) the custodian and worshipper, 3) the sufferer and the person longing for liberation, as well as three corresponding types of historicism: monumental, antiquarian and critical. Finally, she considers the extent to which the Nietzschean project of overcoming nineteenth-century historicism was an original conception in philosophical thought. Ryszard Kasperowicz The Freedom of the Historian - Remarks on the Theory of Crises by Jacob Burckhardt The concept of the "crisis" plays an extremely important role in present-day historical and methodological reflection, and almost becomes the password of assorted attitudes and views. This has been the prevalent situation at least from the mid-nineteenth century. In the case of Jacob Burckhardt, the conception in question denoted, alongside the so-called Drei Potenzen - the state, culture, and religion - one of the most essential factors shaping historical reality. Burckhardt wrote readily about times of crises and breakthrough moments, which he perceived as forces accelerating the course of events and revealing their true nature, deprived of the veil of illusory interests or ideologies. In an analysis of the critical states of culture, the historian, whose task involves, i. a. the creation of images of the past, finds an occasion for demonstrating his own independence and freedom, since he is capable of assuming the attitude of contemplation, pursuing disinterested deliberation on authentic meanings of tradition, and carrying out a quest for the symptoms of the spiritual continuum. Works of art which offer us their timeless beauty and insight into the self-identification of the past epochs, are the most perfect objects of historical contemplation; at the same time, they remain an eternally unresolved puzzle, due to the transcendence of history. Simultaneously, they offer the historian and all who do not wish to tall prey to the barbarity of oblivion, a sphere of liberty unrestrained by the compulsion of contemporaneity. In formulating such a conception, Burckhardt was indebted to Schiller, Goethe and Schelling; he created an entirely original and still topical model of experiencing history and comprehending the freedom enjoyed by the scholar dealing with the past. Andrzej Pieńkos The Poetic and Grotesque Home. The Devised Dwelling of Victor Hugo The home of the artist - different and intentionally moulded as a distinct place - is one of the most important symptoms of the Romantic legacy. Such a record of the personality of its creator, who is not a professional architect, but a man of letters, a painter, etc. - forms a composite phenomenon, evading interpretation on the level of exclusively architecture, outfitting or amateur pursuits. Hauteville House on Guernsey, the emigre refuge of Victor Hugo, presents the historian of literature, architecture or art, with an intricate problem. Its interior, created by the author himself or according to his design, is just as original and distant from the convention of the epoch as are the plastic works executed by Hugo. With the zeal of a true handyman, and by means of an eclectic collection of assorted equipment or objects d'art of various merit and origin, Hugo created a uniform whole. In accordance with his own conception of the grotesque, he extracted them from their original function, and confronted them in astonishing combinations. Albeit the Oriental and mediaeval inspirations in Hauteville House are extremely marked, as is the case in the all the undertakings by Hugo, they merge into a poetical creation at variance with Romantic historicism. This home is the outcome of an imagination that could not be expressed fully in prose and verse, and tried to liberate itself from the restraints of convention in amateur plastic arts and the specific "architecture" of the artist's dwelling. Marzena Gierga Mysterious Places of Greek's Sicily. Ortygia - Island of Love, Life and Death (Part III) Syracuse is a town created by deities, saints, historians, travellers, apologists, theologians, photographers, and, primarily, its own residents. It comprises a phenomenon located above a division into an urban and social subsystem, an area of eloquent meanings, a space for the realisation of concrete and specifically identical attitudes. The metaphorical, mystic-symbolic space of Syracuse is that of three women. This is the birthplace of Artemis, the refuge and site of the eternal rest of Arethusa, and the town of the birth, life and martyrdom of Lucia. By demonstrating the constant presence of the patron in the life of the city, which provokes assorted forms of group imagery, a process of rendering space mythical, and a creation of a world of values shared by its residents, Syracuse gains new meaning. It appears as a town of light, a land of purity, saintliness and glory, a city of luminescence and joy. Its topography is superimposed upon that of its inhabitants, and vice versa, while observed behaviour is granted a double meaning, and comprises an example of the observation of a distinguished place, but also of a transformation of a myth into a ritual, frequently without social awareness. Its outcome assumes the form of the specific dramaturgy of the everyday life of the population of Syracuse, whose sense of existence is restricted to an encounter with the three patrons, advocates, guides and friends, a fact which entitled the author to describe it as "the town of great women". The presented cult of St. Lucia is more of a cult of her image than the worship of a saint, while a version of the hagiographic legend becomes a reference to a myth. That what, at first glance, appears to be contradictory, is encountered on the ethical level of a symbolic structure. By referring to an analysis of the fundamental structure of those transmissions, with different contents but similar form and meaning, the author demonstrates the symbolic continuum of elements characterising Syracuse across the ages. The point of departure for such journeys was the ascertainment of the "strangeness" of this place, disclosed by the omnipresent cult of St. Lucia and her pagan companions in assorted aspects of culture. Their outcome assumed the form of a co­ existence of the literary-metaphorical topos of Syracuse and its real, magical-ritual counterpart. Jan Gondowicz New Archaeology The ancient Biblical story of the construction and navigation of Noah's Ark has produced numerous commentaries, which ultimately constituted a true labyrinth. Within it, we find information about dimension, frame, timber, number of passengers, nourishment, course, etc., making it possible to depict the amazing enterprise, about which literally nothing may be maintained with certitude. Aleksander Jackowski Exercises in Remembrance. The Origin of the State Institute of Art Wholly aware that memory is fallible, capable of playing tricks, and, in word, that it is a subjective phenomenon - the author attempts to reconstruct the beginnings of the State Institute of Art, which subsequently became the Institute of Art at the Polish Academy of Sciences. From the very outset, A. Jackowski was associated with the Institute, which today celebrates its fiftieth anniversary, in his capacity as 111 �the editor-in-chief of the periodical "Polska Sztuka Ludowa" (in the early 1990s, it assumed the title of "Konteksty"). Capoeira - Dialogue and Struggle. Valentin Reinbold Talks to Łukasz Nalaskowski Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian ritual which, similarly to the samba, came into being at the turn of the eighteenth century among Negro slaves, particularly numerous in the state of Bahia (north-west Brazil). Initially, the capoeira rites, combining elements of dance, battle and music, fulfilled two fundamental functions. First, they comprised a system of non-verbal communication, by means of which generated considerable linguistic diversity in a group working on a single plantation. Second, owing to the martial elements present in the ritual, capoeira improved physical prowess and taught techniques of self-defence, especially important in the case of escapes from the plantations. At present, next to the samba, the capoeira is a tourist attraction. Numerous visitors perceive it as a national sport of Brazil; consequently, capoeira displays are part of programmes offered by tourist excursions. Furthermore, capoeira has found a niche in West European culture. Every larger town in Germany has at least one capoeira school, usually conducted by Brazilian emigres, who make their way to West Europe or the United States in search of better financial conditions. In Poland, where capoeira remains al totally unknown, two workshop, each lasting several days, were hel Toruń. Stanisław Cichowicz Dream, Nightmare, or the Incubus and I The theme of this study is the "female monster", who appe global folklore in different periods and assorted places. The author t and describes her articulation in Old Greek culture, contemporary Poj culture, ancient Hindu and Iranian culture, and, to the great astonishn of the readers, in his own personal life. We publish pertinent statements and the conversatj accompanying the promotion of Obrazy ludowe (Folk Pictures) ; O rzeźbach i rzeźbiarzach (On Sculptures and Sculptors) books by i sander Jackowski We present a continuation of the Polish-language version of j celebrated Dzienniki by Bronisław Malinowski. Although written mail in Polish it first appeared in English as A Diary in the Strict Sense oft Term. NOTY O AUTORACH Zbigniew Benedyktowicz - antropolog kultury, redaktor „Kontekstów". Kie­ rownik Pracowni Antropologii Kultury, Filmu i Sztuki Audiowizualnej. Autor prac z zakresu wyobraźni symbolicznej i antropologii współcze­ snej, m.in. książki (z Danutą Benedyktowicz) Dom w tradycji ludowej. Stanisław Cichowicz - filozof, tłumacz, edytor, poeta, artysta. Autor książki Filozof i istnienie. U podstaw teodycei G. Leibniza, PWN 1970, Est mo­ dus in Rebus, Tow. Muzyki Współczesnej 1987, Moje ucho a księżyc. Diagnozy i dywagacje, Wyd. Słowo, Obraz/Terytoria 1996, Czy można przesadzić rzepak? 67 haiku, Wyd. BWA 1996. Marzena Gierga - etnolog (studia UJ). Studia doktoranckie w Instytucie Et­ nologii UJ; przygotowuje prace, doktorską poświęconą związkom antro­ pologii z historią i literaturą w oparciu o Kroniki włoskie Stendhała. Dwu­ krotna stypendystka we Włoszech, staż w Instytucie Antropologii Kultu­ ry w Sienie. Jan Gondowicz - krytyk, wydawca, współpracownik „Tygodnika Powszech­ nego"; wydał m.in. Marmur Josifa Brodskiego, Słownik komunałów Gu­ stawa Flauberta, Zoologie fantastyczną uzupełnioną. Mieszka w Warsza­ wie. Aleksander Jackowski - antropolog kultury (studia: socjologia UW), autor wielu tekstów o współczesnej kulturze artystycznej, zwłaszcza ludowej. Krytyk sztuki. Organizator kilkudziesięciu wystaw sztuki ludowej i naiw­ nej w kraju i za granicą. Ostatnio wydał Sztukę zwaną naiwną. Na skrót}; Obrazy ludowe. Redaktor „Kontekstów". Alfred Jarry - francuski dramatopisarz (1873-1907), autor m.in. sławnej sztuki Ubu król (1896), napisał także pięć powieści, z których najlepsza to Dzieła i myśli doktora Faustrolla. Patofizyka. Powieść owa oczarowała surrealistów. Łączy w sobie naukę, humor, symbolizm i wiedzę tajemną, jest również duchową autobiografią Jarry'ego. Najbogatsze koncepty książki wywodzą się z wyobraźni naukowej, mając odniesienie do sfery biograficznej i literackiej oraz stając się podstawą najosobliwszego po­ mysłu Jarry'ego - quasi-filozoficznej doktryny nazwanej „Patafizyką". Ryszard Kasperowicz - ukończył historię sztuki na KUL-u. Asystent w Ka­ tedrze Teorii Sztuki i Historii Doktryn Artystycznych (KUL). Przygoto­ wuje pracę doktorską na temat B. Berensona. Łukasz Kiepuszewski - doktorant w Instytucie Historii Sztuki Adama Mic­ kiewicza w Poznaniu oraz absolwent Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Pozna­ niu. Adam Kilian - scenograf teatrów lalkowych, dramatycznych i muzycznych. Ważniejsze realizacje scenograficzne: O Zwyrtale Muzykancie, czyli juk się stary góral dostał do Nieba - Jan Wilkowski wg Kazimierza Przcrwy-Tetmajera (Teatr Lalka, Warszawa), Wesele S. Wyspiańskiego (Teatr Polski, Szczecin, Teatr Powszechny, Teatr Narodowy, Warszawa), Krako­ wiacy i Górale Wojciecha Bogusławskiego (Teatr im. J. Slowackieg Kra­ ków), Balladyna J. Słowackiego (Teatr Powszechny, Warszawa), Sen no­ cy letniej Szekspira (Teatr Polski, Warszawa). Grafik, ilustrator książek dla dzieci, projektant filmów animowanych. Kawaler Orderu Uśmiechu. Ireneusz Krzemiński - dr hab., profesor UW, socjolog i publicysta, zain­ teresowany od lat zagadnieniami polityki. Badacz ruchu społecznego „Solidarność" i zwolennik socjologii humanistycznej. Najważniejsze prace: Socjologia i symboliczny interakcjonizm (Warszawa 1996), na­ stępnie szereg prac publikowanych w „podziemiu" (Świat zakorzenio­ ny, Solidarność'80); artykuły w „Więzi", „Znaku", „Powściągliwości i Pracy", „Aneksie", „Kontakcie", „Przeglądzie Politycznym" i „Ty­ godniku Powszechnym"; po 1990 roku: Bitwa o Belweder (wraz z M. Grabowską) o wyborach prezydenckich. Czy Polacy są antysemita­ 112 f pipilfMłt mi?. Co się dzieje między ludźmi?, .Solidarność". Projekt polskiej A mokracji. Współpracownik „Rzeczypospolitej" w latach 1991-93. Dorota Majkowska - studentka IV roku Instytutu Etnologii UJ. Łukasz Nalaskowski - współorganizator festwialu Pobocza Teatru, ТогаЯ Jacek Olędzki - Etnolog, dr habilitowany, pracuje na Wydziale Geogrif i Studiów Regionalnych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Autor tekstów i naszego pisma od 1959 r. Od kilkunastu lat łączy szczegółową i s y s t e ł L tyczną pracę badawczą w Murzynowie koło Płocka z szcrs/.| refleksją obejmującą inne części Polski oraz znane mu z autopsji miejsca w Euro., pie, Azji i Afryce. Ostatnio wydał Ludzie wygasłego spojrzenia (1999)Ж Andrzej Pieńkos - adiunkt w Instytucie Historii Sztuki UW. Wraz z żoną, Л lantą Chrzanowską-Pieńkos, opublikował Słownik artystyczny PuryM i regionu lle-de-France (Warszawa 1996) i Leksykon polskiej sztuki ХХЩ (Poznań 1997). Prace z zakresu historii sztuki nowoczesnej, krytyki artfl stycznej i eseistyki dotyczącej kultury publikuje min. w czasopismjje „Art and Busness", „Dom i Wnętrze", „Nowy Nurt", „Znak" oraz регня dykach naukowych „Ikonotheka", „Rocznik Historii Sztuki", „ArtibusjB Historiae". Valentin Reinbold - uczeń szkoły Capoeira Angola prowadzonej przez ЬгаШ zylijskiego mistrza capoeira Rogerio Soaresa Peixoto oraz organizator (Л stiwalu muzyki etnicznej w Kassel. Marc Shell - członek MacArthur Fellow, profesor literatury angielskiej i pom równawczej na Uniwersytecie Harvarda. Opublikował m.in. The End Л Kinship, Children of the Earth, Elizabeth 's Glass i Money, Language, апЛ Thought. Publikowany esej wygłoszony został pierwotnie na Hebrewj University of Jerusalem i w Tel-Avi\ University, wszedł również do jegoj książki Over Due. Maryla Sitkowska - historyk sztuki, krytyk, członek AICA. Od 1990 r. kie-J ruje Muzeum ASP w Warszawie. W 1995 r. laureatka Nagrody Krytykł] Artystycznej im. Jerzego Stajudy. Kuratorka kilku wystaw problemom wych, min. Oblicza socrealizmu. Muzeum Narodowe, Warszawa 1987; Polak Niemiec Rosjanin, Dawne Zakłady Norblina, Warszawa 1989;] Gruppa 1982-1992, Galeria Zachęta, Warszawa 1992/93. Stefan Starczewski - polonista, socjolog, wiceminister kultury w rządzie Tadeusza Mazowieckiego, dyrektor ds. promocji Fundacji Kultury. Jan Witold Suliga - dr, Dyrektor Państwowego Muzeum Etnograficzne­ go w Warszawie, etnograf, specjalność naukowa - kultura Indii; autor, literat, znawca tarota. Wiesława Wierzchowska - z wykształcenia historyk sztuki, zajmuje się sztuką współczesną. Redaktor w piśmie „Projekt". Do 1988 kuratorka wielu wystaw, w tym wspólnie z Elżbietą Dzikowską wystawy Jesteśmy (1991) i Ars Erotica (1994). Opublikowała min. Współczesny rysunek polski (WAiF 1982), Sąd nieocenzurowany (w drugim obiegu, 1989), Au­ toportrety (Agencja Wydawnicza Interster, 1991), Andrzej Mierzejewski (Rosikoń Press 1998). Związana z Galerią Pokaz. Elżbieta Wolicka - profesor dr habilitowany, kierownik Katedry Teorii Sztu­ ki i Historii Doktryn Artystycznych KUL; członek redakcji „Znaku"; wy­ dała min. Byt i znak (1982), Mimetyka i mitologia Platona (1994), Próby filozoficzny (1997). Mieszka w Lublinie. Tomasz Żukowski - absolwent polonistyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, doktorant Instytutu Badań Literackich PAN. Zajmuje się powojenną pro­ zą polską. Publikował w „Kontekstach", „Tekstach drugich", „Pamiętni­ ku Literackim" oraz w: Maria Janion, Maria Żmigrodzka Odyseja wycho­ wania. Goelheańska wizja człowieak w „ Latach nauki i latach wędrówki Wilhelma Meistra", Kraków 1992. �W poprzednim numerze: Zbigniew Benedyktowicz, Uboga haka - Podróży, miejsc mitycznych, rzeczy - ciąg dalszy • Małgorzata Dziewulska, Drugie t cie przedmiotów • Edyta Bielawska, Aparat fotograficzny - karabin maszynowy z przedstawienia „Wielopole, Wielopole" • Tomasz Kalczyński, „Drzwi" ze spektaklu „Niech sczezną artyści" • Dorota Nowak, Łóżko - maszyna śmierci ze spektaklu Tadeusza Kantora „Wielopole, Wielopole" • Anna Łoboda, Obrus z przedstawienia „Wielopole, Wielopole" • Dominika Rembelska, Opis postaci Wuj Stasio Zesłaniec ze spektaklu „Wielopole, Wielopole" • Krzysztof Rekosz, Pręgierze w spektaklu Tadeusza Kantora „Niech sczezną artyści" • Igor Gorzkowski, Drezynka w spektaklu Tadeusza Kantora „Niech sczezną artyści" • Marta Krystyna Tylkowska, Katarynka • Joanna Kowalik, Basen ze spektaklu „ Wielopole, Wielopole" • Muzyka i dźwięk w nrzedstawieniach Kantora. Rozmawiają Tomasz Dobrowolski, Małgorzata Dziewulska i Piotr Kloczowski • Jakub Szczuka, Per monstra ad sphaeram. Aby Warburg i jego biblioteka • Joanna Tokarska-Bakir, „Ślepy bibliotekarz". O pisemnym wymiarze ustności • Piotr Szacki Niezwykłość • Stanisław Łabiszewski, „Camera a la minute - ręka", czyli opowieść pięciominutowego fotografa" • Jan Gondowicz, „Nagi człowiek na nagiej ziemi" • Agnieszka Tulik, Podróże barbarzyńców • Krzysztof Cibor, Nieistniejący film, nieistniejące miasto, nieistniejące życie. Propedeutyka wędrówki poza słownik • Artur Setniewski, Świetlica. Rzecz o dwóch królestwach • Maksymilian Rejmer, Święty czas i święta przestrzeń • Wiesław Szpilka, Podróż: „Pod osłoną nieba" • Marzena Gierga, Tajemnicze miejsca greckiej Sycylii. Syrakuzy miastem wielkich kobiet (cz. II) • Marek Oziewicz, Co można znaleźć w szafie? Światy równoległe „Kronik narnijskich" CS. Lewisa (cz. II) • Dariusz Czaja, Krzesło. Szkic do portretu • Agnieszka Makarewicz, Piłka • Danuta Bolikowska, „Dym" • Katarzyna Kuszyńska, Papieros i popielniczka • Marceli Zygała, Fumare humanum est. Krótki leksykon używek tytoniowych wokół nas • Marcin Szporko, Krystyna Gieryszewska, Zielone liście na ulicach Berlina • Ireneusz Kamiński, Autobus • Jarosław jot-Drużycki, Vlepka albo interpretacja swobodna • Jacek Olędzki, „Zgredy rule" i ulotna sztuka niewinności • Chana Pollack, Pekaesem do Ostrowca i z powrotem • Sylwia Trzaska, John Maizels, „Raw Creation. Outsider Art and Beyond" • Janusz Barański, Pluralis non maiestaticus, czyli ludzie jak rzeczy • Dorota Hall, Uciekanie przy ekranie • Marcin Kafar, Żyć w rytmie 230 bitów na minutę • Dorota Gut, Po drugiej stronie ekranu • Dorota Gut, Piszę więc jestem. O języku Internetu • Magdalena Radkowska, Hiperrealność Lary. Lara hiperrealności • Dorota Kołakowska, Planeta Diana - próba analizy reakcji na śmierć księżnej Walii • Tomoho Umeda, Audiofilia królestwie • James Clifford, Opowiedz mi o swojej podróży: Michel Leiris • Olga Łobaczewska, Wizyta w Lilii I O Bronisławie Malinowskim pisaliśmy już w numerze 3-4/1992: James Clifford, Samokreacja etnograficzna: Conrad i Malinowski w numerze 1-2/1997: Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Spotkanie z córką Bronisława Malinowskiego i jego biografem Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Rozmowa z Heleną Wayne Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Rozmowa z Michaelem Youngiem Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Wpływ kobiet na życie i dzieło Bronisława Malinowskiego Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Elisie Terence Wright, Antropolog jako artysta: fotografie Malinowskiego z Trobriandów w numerze 3-4/1997: Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Elisie Bronisław Malinowski, Pisane dla Anieli Zagórskiej w numerze 1/1998: Maria Ossowska, Bronisława Malinowskiego „Dziennik w ścisłym znaczeniu tego słowa" Clifford Geertz, Zaświadczające Ja. Dzieci Masson Masson Malinowskiego. Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Wstęp do dzienników Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 1 w numerze 2/1998: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 2 w numerze 3-4/1998: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 3 Dziennik 1914-1918 w numerze 1-2/1999: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki 1914-1918 Bronisława Malinowskiego 1908 - 1913 Prenumerata „Kontekstów. Polskiej Sztuki Ludowej" 1999 I półrocze 2000 I I półrocze 2000 kwartalna - 5 zł; półroczna - W zł; roczna - 20 zł kwartalna - 10 zł; półroczna - 20 zł kwartalna - 12 zł; półroczna - 24 zł Wpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmuje firma AMOS, Warszawa, ul. Zuga 12 Konto: PKO BP V I I I Oddział Warszawa nr 10201084-77578-270-1-111 oraz RUCH, konto: PBK S.A. o/Warszawa, nr 11101053-16-551-2700-1-67 (z zaznaczeniem: prenumerata „Kontekstów") Prenumerata ze zleceniem wysyłki za granicę jest 150% droższa (AMOS); podrożona o realny koszt wysyłki (RUCH). � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/c0e045b7ddac16f1e1ad8d60091632fa.pdf 05ca17b1d5d6eba2a6e8c6c6adfe1c73 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:2814 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2622 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles; Noty o autorach / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1999 t.53 z.4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1999 t.53 z.4, s.119-120 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY OF ARTICLE A Discussion on Real Presences by George Steiner A recorded discussion about, and in connection with George Steiner's Real Presences, held in the Institute of Art at the Polish Aca­ demy of Sciences with the participation of Dariusz Czaja, Zbigniew Benedyktowicz, Michał Bristgier, Zygmunt Kubiak, Jacek Sempoliń­ ski, Wiesław Juszczak, Paweł Kłoczowski, Piotr Kłoczowski, Lech Trzcionkowski and Marcin Gmys. G. Steiner presents the condition of contemporary culture. „submerged under texts, texts about texts, and texts about texts about te­ xts", a diagnosis of the intellectual and spiritual situation, the pro­ blem of the current ..cultivation of the humanities", and difficulties encountered in the interpretation of the text. Our epoch is described as the time of an epilogue, the period of the postscript, witnessing a divorce between the work and the object, and the word and the world. The outcome of this process is an escape from coming across ..live presence", and, as a consequence, the progressing deprivation of the world of its mysteriousness. The disappearance of this quality, Steiner declares, must lead straight towards „the eclipse of mankind". Contact with a work of art does not involve the production of yet another text, but a profound existential experience, generating a situ­ ation in which „you must alter your life", in the words of Rilke. Ste­ iner conceives the creative act as an ..extraordinary festival of free­ dom", when contact with a work of art is entirely voluntary and unbiased, and when two liberties meet; such an encounter enables experiencing the tradition of ..actual presence". All ..significant forms", regardless of the matter in which they appear, should emerge against the backdrop of a religious horizon. In the opinion of Steiner art without a theological dimension is simply an oxymoron. The discussion is supplemented by the enclosed views of Mi­ chał P. Markowski, Real Desires, Paweł Kłoczowski, The Proper Order of Things , and Dariusz Czaja, His Master's Voice? On Musicaccording to Steiner. Mirosław Filipowicz Otto Klemperer. On the Margin of the Book by Peter Heyworth The author presents Otto Klemperer (1885-1973), one of the most outstanding twentieth-century conductors and interpreters of music. The study is a review of an excellent detailed biography of the conductor, written by the English musicologist Peter Heyworth widen by personal remarks of the author on Klemperer's recordings. Aleksandra Melbechowska-Luty The Spirit of Human Labour. On the Works of Jacek Sempoliń­ ski Jacek Sempoliński (b. 27 March 1927) is an outstanding painter, pedagogue, man of letters and professor at the Academy of Fine Arts. The key to understanding his works and personality is to be found in the poems of Emily Dickinson, cited in the text, and the psychologi­ cal theory devised by Elizabeth Kiibler-Ross and based on four squ­ ares (man's basic features): physical, intellectual, emotional and spi­ ritual-intuitive, which mould and designate the course of human life. J. Sempoliński is an expert on music and an excellent writer about art, but his main domain is painting. He is the author of hundreds of ca­ nvases and thousands of drawings, frequently displayed at one-man shows and group exhibitions. The artist defines his own iconography and transmits his experiences by remaining predominantly within the range of the sacrum. His landscapes are either realistic or intuitively recall the spirit of the past, the ancient motif of nature and memories of the eternal being of nature. Other series - Crucifixions, Skulls, Bre­ ad and Faces - are suffused with the spiritual element. The artist's po­ int of departure is the shape of an actual object, gradually reduced to abstract and allusive forms, signs and symbols. A l l these works carry eschatological contents, and pertain to the philosophy of existence and ultimate issues. The specific features of Sempolinski's personali­ ty are reflectiveness and an inclination towards melancholy, which, however, do not deprive his compositions of inner energy and force. Many canvases reflect intense expression. The artist places on the ca­ nvas or paper thick, ragged daubs, wide, angular smudges, spots, and zig-zags - vectors of motion-filled impastos marked with the undula­ ting nervous movement of the paintbrush or spatula; at times, he te­ ars or outright mutilates the canvas. Sempoliński uses oil and acrylic paint, tempera, pastels, pencil and charcoal. His palette accentuates purple, cold blue (more rarely: green), grey, creamy white, succulent yellow, orange and cold red. Black is obtained by combining red and Parisian blue. During the last two years, the artist seems to have di­ scovered a new fount of energy and as if returned to his youth. He embarked upon new themes and contents expressing the plenitude of humanity: dramatic self-portraits and studies of the body with phallic motifs, associated with an awareness of sin and depicted without the merest shadow of triviality. Sempoliński does not seek the approval of the public, and cares little for the attractive, banal aesthetics of the painting although he treats the category of beauty extremely seriou­ sly. He remains an independent artist, who does not succumb to cur­ rent targets, shies from modern programmes and avant-garde novel­ ties. He was and is solitary and loyal to his own imperatives and co­ nvictions. At the same time, he remains a man of great laboriousness. For this reason his accomplishments are illustrated so well by the po­ em by Emily Dickinson, which serves as the motto of this article: The Missing All - prevented Me From missing minor Things If nothing larger than a World's Departure from a Hinge Or Sun's extinction, be observed'Twas not so large that I Could lift my Forehead from my work For Curiosity. Wiesław Juszczak Some Remarks on Satiricon by Fellini Pondering on the necessity which inclined Fellini to direct Sati­ ricon (1969) the author discusses both the entire Fellini oeuvre and films by Pasolini which date from the same period and refer to anti­ quity (Edipo re - 1967, Medea - 1969). The two directors „barbarised" the commonly held, polished comprehension of antiquity. In Satiricon the author also perceives the director's need to speak about himself and to make a compulsory ..confession". This tale about dec­ line and collapse does not appear to be merely the story of disintegra­ tion. By recalling the title of the session at which the text was origi­ nally presented („There will be no other end of the world...") the au­ thor ends his reflections by citing Eliot: „In my beginning is my end (...) In my end is my beginning". Dariusz Czaja Lessons of Darkness. Two Views of the Apocalypse The author considers the contemporary understanding of the Apocalypse of St. John. Is the language of the symbols and meta­ phors of the prophecy still relevant today? What reality does the my­ sterious text of the Revelation refer to? How are we to comprehend the vision of the „end of the world"? In a reference to The Idiot by Dostoievsky, the author demon­ strates two different attempts at understanding the Biblical prophecy. He discusses in greater detail their contemporary (obviously, uninten­ tional) developments: Lektionen in Finsternis . a film by Werner He­ rzog, and The Short History of the Apocalypse and its Secularisation. an essay by Krzysztof Michalski. In conclusion, D. Czaja maintains that notwithstanding all the differences the two interpretations meet in a single junction: they do not relegate the ..end of the world" to some undefined ..later" nor do they place it in the future, but opt, although by resorting to different means, to a certain version of a religiously devised eschatology, which realises itself in time, „here and now". Wiesław Szpilka The Problem of the Year 2000 The author consider the form assumed by the titular problem in mass culture. Its vision does not seem to be overly sophisticated, and the eschatology is rather low and accessible to all. Although mobili­ sation is universal, it is assumed that in the wake of its ritual death the world is to re-emerge in accordance with popular rite de passage sce­ narios. Apparently, popular culture thinks that there will be no other end of the world. Jan Gondowicz The Most Beautiful Tale in the World. Apocalyptic Variations A description of a possible ending of the most beautiful (i. e. B i ­ blical) tale in the world if the arrow of time were to be reversed in ac­ cordance with the beliefs cherished by physicists. Janusz Barański The End of Ethnology or the End of the Age of Ethnology - So­ me Fortunetelling at the Threshold of a New Century The author of the article poses the thesis that Polish ethnology 119 �has found itself in a deep crisis, which, to a certain extent, is the out­ come of the postmodern breakthrough in the humanities and the so­ cial sciences. First, the diagnosis proposed by Jean Baudrillard, who ascertai­ ned the existence of a mutation of ethnology, namely, anti-ethnology, which artificially sustains the object of its research, can be referred also to Polish ethnology. In the latter instance, we are dealing with a process known as "cloning" - the reactivation of assorted forms of traditional culture, a task performed by so-called traditional ethnogra­ phy, which blurs the boundary between the work conducted by a re­ searcher and a cultural activist. On the other hand, the ensuing reac­ tion assumes the form of so-called anthropology of contemporaneity, which almost totally abandons the heretofore objective range of eth­ nology and concentrates on an analysis of "contemporary culture"; it also rejects the method of on-the-spot studies, so characteristic for ethnology. A strong stimulus for those tendencies is the somewhat uncritical reception of postmodernistic ideas launched by American anthropology. Meanwhile, Polish theoretical ethnological thought can boast of independent and original methodological reflection, to a certain extent concurrent with the world tendencies, albeit insufficiently ap­ plied. Moreover, related disciplines, such as sociology of culture or economy, increasingly resort to exemplary on-the-spot research devi­ sed by ethnology for the purposes of dealing with current problems experienced by the West. More, ethnology suitable for the demands of the twenty first century could, as if reversibly, benefit from theore­ tical suggestions made within those disciplines. The process of ethnologization outside ethnology is being continued, but ethnology it­ self remains least affected by it. The conclusion calls for a „return to the sources", the ever-in­ spiring themes from the range of cultural differences and distinctness, as well as culture comprehended in terms of non-dismissal and me­ thods profiting mainly from on-the-spot investigations. Such an ap­ proach creates opportunities for tackling the challenges facing pre­ sent-day ethnologists who, unless they wish to become alienated from the problems of the modern world, should concentrate their at­ tention to a greater extent on examining such phenomena as sub-cul­ tures, lifestyles, organisational cultures, the political ritual, new forms of religiosity, consumer culture, etc. Unencumbered by com­ plexes, they should enter those regions and protest against a reduction to the role an auxiliary discipline vis a vis other realms of the huma­ nities and the social sciences. NOTY O AUTORACH Janusz Barański - adiunkt w Instytucie Etnologii UJ. Autor prac m.in. o słowiańskiej kosmogonii, języku polityki, reklamie; obecne jego zain­ teresowania pozostają w zakresie tzw. studiów kulturowych. Zbigniew Benedyktowicz - antropolog kultury, redaktor „Kontekstów". Kierownik Pracowni Antropologii Kultury, Filmu i Sztuki Audiowizual­ nej. Autor prac z zakresu wyobraźni symbolicznej i antropologii współ­ czesnej, m.in. książki (z Danutą Benedyktowicz) Dom w tradycji ludo­ wej. Michał Bristiger - emerytowany profesor muzykologii w Instytucie Sztu­ ki (obecnie w Radzie Naukowej Instytutu), w latach dziewięćdziesiątych wprowadził wykłady z teorii muzyki na Uniwersytecie Kalabryjskim w Arcavacata di Rende oraz na Uniwersytecie Adama Mickiewicza. Otrzymał nagrodę im. Jużykowskiego. Autor licznych artykułów, wydał m.in. Związki muzyki ze słowem. Z zagadnień analizy muzycznej, Kra­ ków 1986. Akademik, korespondent Akademii Bolońskiej oraz członek Komitetu Nauk o Sztuce PAN. . Zbigniew Benedyktowicz - antropolog kultury, redaktor „Kontekstów". Kierownik Pracowni Antropologii Kultury, Filmu i Sztuki Audiowizual­ nej. Autor prac z zakresu wyobraźni symbolicznej i antropologii współ­ czesnej, m.in. książki (z Danutą Benedyktowicz) Dom w tradycji ludo­ wej. Dariusz Czaja - etnolog, studia UJ. Napisał pracę doktorską o symbolu w fil­ mie. Pracuje w Instytucie Etnologii UJ i w redakcji „Kontekstów". Redak­ tor książki Mitologie popularne (1994) i. Metamorfozy ciała (1999). Mirosław Filipowicz - historyk specjalizujący się w historii historiografii. Pracuje w Katolickim Uniwersytecie Lubelskim na stanowisku adiunkta w Katedrze Historii Europy Wschodniej. Opublikował m.in. Wobec Ro­ sji. Studia z dziejów historiografii polskiej od końca XIX w. po II wojnę światową, Lublin 2000. Prywatnie kolekcjoner nagrań muzyki klasycz­ nej. Oskar Goldberg (1885 Berlin - 1952 Nicea) pochodził z ortodoksyjnej ro­ dziny żydowskiej. Wyższe studia w zakresie nauk judaistycznych odbyt w Theologische Hochschule Beit ha-Midrasch w Berlinie. Od 1909 roku w Monachium i w Berlinie studiował medycynę, orientalistykę i etnopsychologię. W latach 1913/14 odbywa wyprawę badawczą po Bhutanie. Nepalu i Kaszmirze. W jej trakcie zbiera materiały do rozprawy doktor­ skiej na temat anormalnych procesów biologicznych występujących w praktykach mistycznych Orientu, której obronę uniemożliwił jednak wybuch wojny. Wcześniej w 1911 roku wraz z Fritzem Hommelem, Hu­ go Wincklerem i Fritzem Delitschem zakłada Gesellschaft zur Erforschung der unbewusst-seelischen Vorgaenge in Sprache und Zahl, zas' w 1917 roku z jego inicjatywy i przy poparciu Bubera powstaje Gesell­ schaft fiir die Soziologie und Volkerpsychologie des Orients. W latach 1920-32 Goldberg przewodził pracom berlińskiej Philosophische Gruppe. w której udzielali się między innymi Hans Reichenbach, Karl Korsch, Alfred Dbblin i Robert Musil. Pierwsze sześć lat na uchodźctwie przeby­ wał we Włoszech, gdzie wraz z Tomaszem Mannem redagował emigra­ cyjne czasopismo „Mass und Wert". Dzięki pomocy Marcela Maussa w 1939 roku udaje się do Francji, zas' dwa lata później przenosi się do USA. Po powrocie do Europy w 1950 roku żyje we Francji, gdzie umie­ ra w wieku 67 lat. Główne dzieła Goldberga to w porządku chronologicz­ nym: Die fiinf Biicher Mosis ein Zahlengebaude, Berlin 1908; Die Wirklichkeit der Hebraer, Berlin 1924; Maimonides. Kritik der jiidischen Glaubenslehre, Wien 1935. Jan Gondowicz - krytyk, wydawca, współpracownik „Tygodnika Po­ wszechnego"; wydał m.in. Marmur Josifa Brodskiego, Słownik komuna­ łów Gustawa Flauberta, Zoologię fantastyczną uzupełnioną. Mieszka w Warszawie. Wiesław Juszczak - profesor U W j Instytutu Sztuki PAN, historyk sztuki, filozof, autor wielu książeM a r t y s t ó w oraz tłumaczeń (w tym z litera­ tury pięknej). Ostatnio w^dał Fragmm&y. Szkice z teorii ifilozofiisztuki 120 Unuoimj oraz przekłady Coctail Party Eliota oraz dwóch poematów Blake'a: Mil­ ton, Zaślubiny Nieba i Piekła (Wydawnictwo Universitas). Paweł Kłoczowski - adiunkt przy Instytucie Filozofii UJ, współpracuje z .Ze­ szytami Literackimi", „Przeglądem Politycznym" i .Znakiem". W roku 2000, w wydawnictwie Aletheia ukaże się jego książka Filozofia polityczna Arystotelesa. Piotr Kłoczowski - edytor, wykładowca Akademii Teatralnej w Warsza­ wie. W bieżącym roku w jego przygotowaniu ukażą się Chwile oderwa­ ne K. A. Jeleńskiego (Czytelnik). Michał Paweł Markowski - dr hab., teoretyk literatury, tłumacz, eseista. Pracownik Instytutu Filologii Polskiej UJ. Opublikował: Efekt inskrypcji. Jacques Derrida i literatura (1997), Nietzsche. Filozofia interpretacji (1997), zbiór esejów Anatomia ciekawości (1999) oraz Pragnienie obe­ cności. Filozofie reprezentacji od Platona do Kartezjusza (1999). Tłuma­ czył m.in. Foucaulta, Deleuze'a (Proust i znaki dla wyd. słowo/obraz te­ rytoria), Derridę, Lyotarda. Rorty'ego. Blanchota, Levinasa, Barthes'a, Edmunda White'a, Paula de Mana. W tym roku wyjdzie jego przekład Gabinetu kolekcjonera Georgesa Pereka. Wydawca Pism Rolanda Bar­ thes'a (ukazały się już trzy tomy z jego przedmowami: S/Z, Fragmenty dyskursu miłosnego. Imperium znaków) oraz esejów Prousta O czytaniu (w wydawnictwie „Znak"). Członek kolegium redakcyjnego „Pamiętni­ ka Literackiego", serii „Horyzonty Nowoczesności" w wydawnictwie Universitas. Stały współpracownik „Literatury na Świecie", gdzie opra­ cował monograficzny, podwójny numer poświęcony Proustowi (1998, 12). Mieszka w Krakowie. Aleksandra Melbechowska-Luty - historyk sztuki, studia na UW, dok­ torat z nauk humanistycznych (UW 1966). Specjalizacja: historyk sztu­ ki polskiej X I X / X X w. Adiunkt w Instytucie Sztuki PAN (gdzie praco­ wała w latach 1955-1985), Pracownia Słownika Artystów Polskich. Au­ torka 35 artykułów i 7 książek , m.in. Teofil Kwiatkowski (monografia), Ossolineum, Wrocław 1966; Widmo. Życie i twórczość Ludwika De Laveaux, Wrocław 1988; Posągi i ludzie. Antologia tekstów o rzeźbie pol­ skiej XIX w., IS PAN, Warszawa 1993 (wspólnie z Piotrem Szubertem); Mali mistrzowie polskiego pejzażu XIX w., Neriton. Warszawa 1997; Nokturny. Widoki nocy w malarstwie polskim. Arkady. Warszawa 1999. Jacek Sempoliński - wybitny malarz, pedagog, człowiek pióra, profesor Akademii Sztuk Pięknych. Studia ASP w Warszawie. Debiut na Wysta­ wie Młodych w Arsenale w 1955 r. Od pierwszej indywidualnej wysta­ wy w Zachęcie w 1960 r. czynnie działa w życiu artystycznym. Najważ­ niejsze wystawy w czasie Kultury Niezależnej. Nagrody - im. Jana Cy­ bisa, im. Brata Alberta, Nagroda Państwowa, Nagroda Ministra Kultury i Sztuki. Ostatnia ważna wystawa: duży zespół prac w ramach imprezy „Sąd Ostateczny". Sławomir Sikora - etnolog (studia UW). Sekretarz redakcji „Konteksty". Zajmuje się antropologią fotografii i filmu. Tomasz Sikora - adiunkt w Instytucie Religioznawstwa UJ (Zakład Feno­ menologii Religii), ostatnio wydał Użycie środków halucynogennych a religia, Nomos, Kraków 1999 Wiesław Szpilka - etnolog (studia UJ), studia doktoranckie Instytut Sztu­ ki PAN. pisze pracę doktorską poświęconą etnologicznej interpretacji kultury masowej. Mieszka w Kościelisku. Lech Trzcionkowski - historyk i filolog klasyczny, asystent przy Katedrze Historii Starożytnej w Instytucie Historii K U L . Boris Uspienski (ur. 1937) - filolog, semiotyk kultury, jeden ze współ­ twórców tartusko-moskiewskiej szkoły semiotyki kultury. Wieloletni profesor Uniwersytetu Moskiewskiego. Obecnie wykłada na uniwersyte­ cie w Neapolu. Mieszka w Rzymie. Bibliografia jego prac wynosi kilka­ set pozycji, w tym kilkadziesiąt książek. Cztery z nich ukazały się w Pol­ sce: Kult św. Mikołaja na Rusi (Lublin 1985), Car i Bóg. Semiotyczne aspekty sakralizacji monarchy w Rosji (Warszawa 1992), Poetyka kom­ pozycji (Katowice 1997). Historia i semiotyka (Gdańsk 1999). �W poprzednim numerze: Marc Shell, OK: lub Handel With Care • Łukasz Kiepuszewski, Zmierzch widzenia i widzenie zmierzchu • Elżbieta Wolicka, Historia jako genealogia. Fryderyka Nietzschego projekt przezwyciężania nędzy XIX-wiecznych historyzmów • Ryszard Kasperowicz, Wolność historyka - uwagi o teorii kryzysów Jacoba Burckhardta • Andrzej Pieńkos, Dom poetycki, dom groteskowy. Miejsce wyobrażone Victora Hugo • Marzena Gierga, Tajemnicze miejsca greckiej Sycylii. Ortygia - wyspa miłości, tycia i śmier­ ci [cz- Ш] • Jan Gondowicz, Nowa archeologia • Alfred Jarry, Dzieła i myśli doktora Faustrolla. Patafizyka • Jan Gondowicz, Wstęp do metody Alfreda Jarry • Dorota Majkowska, Świat melancholii • Jacek Olędzki, Oui, j 'en crois • Sławomir Sikora, Nowe przestrzenie antropologii wizualnej • Aleksander Jackowski, Ćwiczenia z pamięci. Powstanie Państwowego Insty­ tutu Sztuki • Capoeira. Dialog i walka. Z Valentinem Reinholdem rozmawia Łukasz Nalaskowski • Stanisław Cichowicz, Sen mara lub zmora i ja • Aleksander Jackowski, Stefan Starczewski, Sławomira Wierzchowska, Ireneusz Krzemiński, Zbigniew Be­ nedyktowicz, Jan Witold Suliga, Jacek Sempoliński, Adam Kilian, Ze spotkania z okazji wydanie albumów Aleksandra Jackowskie­ go: „Obrazy ludowe" oraz „O rzeźbach i rzeźbiarzach" • Bronisław Malinowski, Fotografie i dzienniki 1914-1918. Dziennik w ścisłem znaczeniu tego wyrazu O Bronisławie Malinowskim pisaliśmy już w numerze 3-4/1992: James Clifford, Samokreacja etnograficzna: Conrad i Malinowski w numerze 1-2/1997: Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Spotkanie z córką Bronisława Malinowskiego i jego biografem Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Rozmowa z Heleną Wayne Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Rozmowa z Michaelem Youngiem Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Wpływ kobiet na życie i dzieło Bronisława Malinowskiego Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Elisie Masson Terence Wright, Antropolog jako artysta: fotografie Malinowskiego z Trobriandów w numerze 3-4/1997: Helena Wayne (Malinowska), Historia małżeństwa. Listy Bronisława Malinowskiego i Elisie Masson Bronisław Malinowski, Pisane dla Anieli Zagórskiej w numerze 1/1998: Maria Ossowska, Bronisława Malinowskiego „Dziennik w ścisłym znaczeniu tego słowa" Clifford Geertz, Zaświadczające Ja. Dzieci Malinowskiego. Grażyna Kubica-Heller, Wstąp do dzienników Bronisława Malinowskiego 1908 - 1913 Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 1 w numerze 2/1998: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 2 w numerze 3-4/1998: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki, Zeszyt 3 Dziennik 1914-1918 w numerze 1-2/1999: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki 1914-1918 w numerze 3/1999: Bronisław Malinowski, Dzienniki 1914-1918 Prenumerata „Kontekstów. Polskiej Sztuki Ludowej" 1999 I półrocze 2000 II półrocze 2000 kwartalna - 5 zł; półroczna -10 zł; roczna - 20 zł kwartalna -10 zł; półroczna - 20 zł kwartalna - 12 zł; półroczna - 24 zł Wpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmuje firma AMOS, Warszawa, ul. Zuga 12 Konto: P K O BP V I I I Oddział Warszawa nr 10201084-77578-270-1-111 oraz R U C H , konto: P B K S.A. o/Warszawa, nr 11101053-16-551-2700-1-67 (z zaznaczeniem: prenumerata „Kontekstów") Prenumerata ze zleceniem wysyłki za granicę jest 150% droższa (AMOS); podrożona o realny koszt wysyłki (RUCH). � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/ec6288e6756f37d317c8e567480400b9.pdf f0ed25e122b106d736198c225364553c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. 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Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5565 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5175 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Barbarzyńca 2005 nr 10 Description An account of the resource Barbarzyńca - pismo antropologiczne, 2005 nr (10), s.64 Language A language of the resource pol Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stowarzyszenie Antropologiczne „Archipelagi Kultury” Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text SUMMARY O F ARTICLES Steven Matthews FRANCIS BACON'S SCIENTIFIC APOCALYPSE Very little has been said about Bacon's apocalypticism, or his religious disposition in general, but given Bacon's influence on later generations of thinkers, and particularly on the development of early m o d e r n s c i e n c e , this a s p e c t of B a c o n ' s w r i t i n g s b e a r s real consideration. The development of scientific method was, for Bacon, a fulfillment of Old Testament Prophecy which would reestablish the conditions of earthly paradise. Prior to the events of 1620 leading to his impeachment, Francis Bacon regarded Britain as the land of promise, and his generation as the first in a glorious scientific age when pain and suffering would be overcome. This was to be the "instauration," or restoration of man's Edenic mastery over nature. However, Bacon's fall from worldly grace led to significant modifications in his philosophical and scientific writings. After the impeachment Bacon could no longer rely upon the patronage of King James for his program of Instauration. Neither was Britain necessarily the land of the fulfillment of apocalyptic promise, at least in his lifetime. The timetable for the restoration of man's mastery over nature was lengthened considerably. God now played a much stronger role in bringing the Instauration to be (new obstacles had to be removed that would require divine intervention), but the degree to which prelapsarian perfection could be recovered in this world remained as great as it was before Bacon's own political demise. Bacon's faith in the inevitability of of scientific progress remained unshaken. This essay concludes with the suggestion that the pattern of thinking established by B a c o n ' s archetypal mutation f r o m an i m m i n e n t a p o c a l y p t i c fulfillment to an eventual Utopia has left a strong mark on popular images and expectations of science down to our present day. Maria Leppakari THE END IS NEVER JUST AN END. THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE APOCALYPTIC MYTH IN CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOSITY This article attempts to capture the dynamics of symbolism when it comes to the city of Jerusalem. The focus here is on the use of the term apocalyptic representations to refer on one hand on individual perceptions, on the other hand to socially shared conceptions. As a symbol of war and peace Jerusalem has drawn strong attention, even further it motivates religious individuals and groups to perform actions according to an envisioned end. An analysis of the tension that apocalyptic representations create in religious individuals and groups h o p e s to c o n t r i b u t e to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w a p o c a l y p t i c millenahan themes work within a religious mind setting and how such representations can become motives for performed action. Paweł Barabasz APOKALYPT1SCHE LANDSCHAFTEN. REFLECTIONS ON THE END OF THE WORLD IN FOLK CULTURE The author points out that a relatively low presence of eschatological myths in the preserved ethnographic cultures tradition is compensated by a great number of diffused fragments containing ideas about the end of the World. This kind of reflection does not appear marginally in folk culture; rather it infiltrates this culture as an etiologie narrative shadow. Drawing on folk tradition, the author brings out texts of apocryphal apocalypses and epigraphic predictions from the famous „Sybille prophecy" to highly popular a p o c r y p h a l versions of the revelation in Fatima. Their interpretation leads him to a conclusion that fear of the end of the World undoubtedly has a beneficial social effect: it makes people aware of borders that when crossed bring punishment. Mariusz Czaja "IF THERE IS IMPROVEMENT, THERE WILL BE EXTENSION". APOCALYPTIC DISCOURSE IN CONTEMPORARY CULTURE-THE CASE OF THE SUWAŁKI REGION. The article is an attempt at extending Stephen O'Leary's theory of apocalyptic discourse by means of the interpretative a p p r o a c h proposed by Clifford Geertz. For this purpose, the author draws on the results of his fieldwork in the Suwałki region in North East Poland. Using as his starting point the standard formula of the local apocalyptic discourse: "If there is improvement, there will be extension", he reconstructs structures of signification in this discourse concerning mainly time and evil and their tragic and comic dimensions. Particular attention is given to concepts of the deterioration of time, G o d ' s punishment, portents of the end, and the end as a new beginning. Analyzing them, the author also discusses Mircea Eliade's theory of archaic ideas of time and evil and s h o w s its i n a d e q u a c y in the contemporary apocalyptic discourse. Paulina Niechciał APOCALYPTIC VISIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE SUWAŁKI LANDSCAPE R E S E R V E - THE WHYS AND WHEREFORES. The article was written based on the ethnological field work dealing with the apocalyptic notions of present-day inhabitants of the Suwałki region in North East Poland. It reveals factors that shaped apocalyptic ideas of the locals such as stories recounted by elders and sibylline prophecies. It presents catastrophes, meteorological phenomena, changes in human behavior, and contemporary lifestyle that are regarded as portents of the impending end of the world. Rafał Nahirny Andrew Gow JEWS AND JUDAISM IN CHRISTIAN END-TIME SCENARIOS: HARD-WIRED HATRED OR IRENIC ITINERARIES? The "Left Behind" series of books, pamphlets, and 'ministries', both by the spoken word and on the internet, is reaching millions of A m e r i c a n s - a n d it is b o t h f o r m u l a t i n g a n d reflecting s o m e very disturbing ideas. The "Left Behind" series has sold over 50 million copies, mainly in the United States, and the title Desecration was the number one best-selling hardcover fiction title for 2001. Scholars who study popular religion have been slow to recognise the growing influence and spread of fundamentalist publicity and ideas, partly because academics rarely share the cut-and-dried world-views and u n e q u i v o c a l belief in t h e Divine A u t h o r s h i p of S c r i p t u r e that characterise this s p e c t r u m of the Christian right. 'Pre-millennial dispensationalism', as this theological direction is known, also has real-world corollaries: support for Israel from this group of evangelicals, including a recent subsidy of $2 million to help resettle American Jews in Israel as part of a 'Christian Zionist' project, is designed to 'accelerate' the End Times by making it possible for a central feature of this theology's timetable for salvation to be fulfilled, namely the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem so that it can be desecrated, as in the new Left Behind best-seller, Desecration: namely, so that the Antichrist can, as they believe the Bible prophecies, enter and desecrate it in his role as adversary of Jesus in the final End Time battle for the souls of humankind.The anti-Judaic eschatology of the „Left Behind" series and the pre-millennial spectrum of evangelical Christianity in America are not 'merely' religious p h e n o m e n a , especially since they are religious views about a group that defines itself in both religious and ethnic terms, without separating neatly as most westerners do. If the discourse about Jews in the Left Behind series were couched in secular or social terms, it would be actionable; and if it should ever spill any farther over the rather tenuous and arbitrary boundaries we have set for 'the theological' and enter 'the secular'-say in the event of a major eschatological d i s a p p o i n t m e n t - there might well be real trouble between conservative Christian supporters of Israel and the Jews who make common cause with them. 64 THE EXPERIENCE OF SURVIVAL. AN ATTEMPT AT ANALYSIS. Katarzyna Czuban THE JEW AS A SYMBOL OF S T R A N G E N E S S . P O L E S ' ATTITUDE TOWARD THE EXTERMINATION OF JEWS Małgorzata Budrewicz MEMORIES THROUGH BODY. THE EXPERIENCE OF WOMEN PRISONERS OF A CONCENTRATION CAMP Ewa Jupowiecka ABOUT THE FATE THAT YOU CAN'T COME TO TERMS WITH. (IMRE KERTESZ) Joanna Sobolewska SURVIVORS BLEED HISTORY. HOW TO LIVE AFTER THE HOLOCAUST EXPERIENCE. Katarzyna Podolec CHILDREN OF THE HOLOCAUST. LOSS OF IDENTITY AND ATTEMPTS AT BEING ONESELF AGAIN. The foregoing texts were written during a seminar conducted at the Chair of Cultural Studies at Wrocław University between March and April 2003 by a visiting professor Dorota Głowacka from University of King's College, Halifax, Canada. The seminar focused on issues broadly related to the Holocaust and subjects such as memory and forgetting (including intergenerational memory), traumatic experience (also one inherited by second generations), forgiveness, the survivor syndrome, and anti-Semitism on the basis of various accounts and memoirs of Holocaust survivors (including children), philosophical and journalistic texts, and works of art. The seminar papers presented below are the result of reading, conversations, heated discussions and moments of reflection that not only took place in a class but also extended beyond university walls. The subject matter left no-one indifferent, and the seminar was a truly memorable intellectual and emotional experience. Numer 10/2005 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/f3264a26d6a2dbfa736afb5a659f8d68.pdf c6aa3ffab6b95b9c6fa68dd00d74fa97 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4548 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1963 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4228 Title A name given to the resource Summary of Articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1963 t.17 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1963 t.17, z.1, s.61-64 Language A language of the resource ang, ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F O L K A R T QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE ART INSTITUTE OF THE POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES N. 1 Y E A R BOOK X V I I 1963 SUMMARY O F A R T I C L E S Michał Walicki — THE MASTER ARTIST OF THE PINEWOOD CHURCH The author of the article discusses the polichrome paintings in the church at Libusz (Cracow Voivodship), which, although they are not folk art, could have been of importance for it as a source of inspi­ ration. This polichrome painting represents guild art. Features of Renaissance art are to be found here together with remnants of late Gothic. On the ceiling there are medallions with compositions of figures bordered with twining plant motifs (fig. 3, 4). The ceiling and the triptych in the main altar are the work of one and the same artist, to whom a number of other well known historical paintings of that period can also be attributed (fig. 15, 16, 18, 19, 26). Not only can common features of workmanship and similarity of composition be seen in these paintings, but also common graphic patterns (fig. 12, 20). Aleksandra Jacher-Tyszkowa — JAN LAMĘCKI, SCULPTOR AND DIARIST FROM DĄBROWA ZIELONA Jan Lamęcki, one of the most interesting con­ temporary folk sculptors, was born in 1893 in the district of Radom. As a child, he spent the years 1906—1908 in service and later left for Germany to find work. He returned from Germany after the First World War. He began sculpting when still a child. He grew up among sculptors who carved the traditional figures of saints in Częstochowa and the surrounding districts. But Lamęcki brought his own individual values into his work, basing it on his own observations of the world surrounding him rather than copying the figures he saw being carved. Lamecki's sculptures had both religious and lay motifs, the latter showing a particularly dynamic development in recent years, since the „discovery" of this artist by the A r t Institute in 1956. Lamecki's sculptures have won him fame and ready purchasers both in this country and abroad. Another branch of his work are toy figures moved by mechanism designed by the artist himself. He is also the author of an extensive diary, that is interesting both be­ cause of the anecdotes it contains and the infor­ mation he gives, which is valuable for ethnographers, sociologists and historians. Bożena Zukowicz — JÓZEF KAZIMIERCZAK'S CERAMIC WARE Józef Kazimierczak is today the leading repres­ entative of Kashubian ceramic ware, although he was not a Kashubian by birth. He was born of a miner's family (that had emigrated to earn a liv­ ing). When the family returned to Poland they settled in Toruń. As a boy in his teens, he went to live in Gdynia in 1929 and began working there as a potter's apprentice in the well known workshop of F. Necel. Later he went to work in Meissner's potteries at Kartuzy, where he also worked after the war, mainly as a stove fitter. In 1950, when the potteries became a regional Folk A r t Cooperative, Kazimierczak went back to pottery. His main achie­ vement was a departure from the prevailing Ka­ shubian tradition of ornamented multi-coloured ce­ ramic ware and the revival of the older traditions and forms of pottery in one colour. He introduced a change in the character of the old pottery by the use of black, shiny glazing and adapted the old forms to the new decorative and utility needs. Kazimierczak's ceramic ware has won great popularity and its export has brought in foreign currency equal to 100,000 Polish Zlotys, which accounts for 1/6 of the total production. Malgorzata Matusek — TECHNIQUE OF RUGS WITH THREADED PATTERNS FROM THE VILLAGE OF OGNIWO (LUKÔW DISTRICT) AND VICINITY The technique of making rugs with threated through patterns was introduced in the village of Ogniwo during the First World War by the Babianka sisters. The specific feature of these rugs is the background of woven linen and the pattern threaded through it. The author of the article gives a detailed description of the weaving technique. Different tech­ niques are used for different patterns: Type I (fig. 1), where the whole surface of the rug is covered with a check pattern on the woven linen background; Type 2 (Sig. 5) consists of a set of rosettes scattered evenly over the whole surface of the rug; Type 3 (fig. 3, 4) consists of a square filled in with a che­ quered pattern with four rosettes in the corners; Type 4 (fig. 6, 7) is a check pattern made up of four squares or rectangles. The rugs are almost always in two colours and often have a border (fig. 8). �n O / l b C K O E H A P O / J H O E H C K Y C C T B O K B A P T A / I b H b I K JKyPHAJI H3flABAEMbIK HHCTHT/yTOM H C K y C C T B A n O J I b C K O H AKAflEMHH HAYK N° 1 TO^ H3MHHK XVII 1963 P E 3 D M E Mwxami KOCTEJIA B a j i w r i K H M — MACTEP nMXTOBOrO OTO T B O p n e C T B O . 3Ta noJinxpoMMH npeflCTaBJiaeT TBopnecTBO MaCTepcKHX (uexoB). HepTti MCKyccTBa Bo3poJKfleHM*t CKpemMBaioTca TyT c ocTaTKaMw nocjieflHero nepnofla roTMHecKoro C T M J I H . 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B T O P O M o6pa3eu, ( P M C . 5) npeflCTaBJiaeT K O M n j i e K C po3eTOK, pa36pocaHHbix paBHOMepHO n o B c e w noBepxHOCTM, MJIM MejiKMe p o 3 e T K M , co3flaHHMM pacnojioJKeHHbie B m a XM3THOM n o p a ^ K e . TpeTMił 0 6 p a 3 e i ^ (PMC. 3—4) — S T O K B a f l p a T , BbinojiHeHHbiił u i a x MaTHMM nopaflKOM c 4-Ma p o 3 e T K 3 M M n o yrjiaM. H e T BepTbiM o6pa3ei; ( P M C 6 — 7) — K J i e T K O o 6 p a 3 H M M , C03flaHHbIM M3 3TM noHTM B c e r ^ a flByxi;BeTHbie, Sop^iop ( P M C 8). KOBpw naeT B HMX 4 KBaflpaTOB MJIM n p H M O y r O J I b H M K O B . nacTO BbicTy- �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez P.P. WYDAWNICTWA ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE BIULETYN HISTORII SZTUKI, kwartalnik, ponad 100 str. dużego formatu, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata półroczna 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. POLSKA SZTUKA LUDOWA, kwartalnik, 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty materiał ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PAMIĘTNIK TEATRALNY, kwartalnik, ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. KWARTALNIK FILMOWY, około 100 str. druku, kilkanaście ilustracji. Cena 10 zł, prenumerata 20 zł, roczna — 40 zł. MUZYKA, kwartalnik, około 130 str. druku, liczne przykłady nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PRENUMERATA Zamówienia i przedpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmowane są w terminie do dnia 15-go miesiąca poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty — przez: Urzędy Pocztowe, listonoszy oraz Oddziały i Delegatury „Ruchu". Można również zamówić prenumeratę dokonując wpłaty na konto PKO nr 1-6-100020 — Centrala Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch" — Warszawa, ul. Srebrna 12. Cena prenumeraty za granicę jest o 40%> droższa od ceny podanej wy­ żej. Przedpłaty na tę prenumeratę przyjmuje na okresy półroczne i roczne Przedsiębiorstwo Eksportu i Importu „Ruch" w Warszawie, Wilcza 46, konto 2-6-71 w Narodowym Banku Polskim w Warszawie, ul. Warecka 10. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze zdezaktualizowane można nabyć w sklepie „Ruchu" przy ul. Wiejskiej 14 W Warszawie. Zamówienia spoza Warszawy należy kierować do Centrali Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch", War­ szawa, ul. Srebrna 12. Aktualne numery czasopism Instytutu Sztuki PAN są do w większych księgarniach miast wojewódzkich: Białystok — Lipowa 43 Bielsko — Dzierżyńskiego 3 Bydgoszcz — 1 Maja 17, Dwor­ cowa 14 Bytom — Kościuszki 4 Chorzów — Wolności 13 Częstochowa — A l . NMP 8 Gdańsk-Wrzeszcz — Grunwaldz­ ka 8 Gdynia — Świętojańska 47 Gliwice — Zwycięstwa 31 Grudziądz — Rynek 13 Inowrocław — Królowej Jadwi­ gi 31 Kalisz — Śródmiejska 14 Katowice — Warszawska 11 Koszalin — Młyńska, blok 12 Kielce — Sienkiewicza 30, Sien­ kiewicza 60 Kraków — Podwale 6 Lublin — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 68 nabycia Łódź — Piotrkowska 102a Poznań — Marcinkowskiego 21, Armii Czerwonej 37 Przemyśl — Franciszkańska 19 Radom — Żeromskiego 27 Rzeszów — Kościuszki 3 Sandomierz — płk. Skoperiki 4 Słupsk — PI. Zwycięstwa 11 Sopot — Bohaterów Monte Cassi­ no 26 Sosnowiec — Czerwone Zagłę­ bie 23 Toruń — Rynek Staromiejski 30 Warszawa — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 7, Kredytowa 9, Pięk­ na 31/37, Bracka 20, Nowy Świat 35, Rynek Starego Miasta 22/24 Włocławek — 3 Maja 25 Wrocław — Kuźnicza 42 Zabrze — Wolności 276 > Stołeczne Z a k ł a d y Graficzne. D . W . W - w a , P o d c h o r ą ż y c h 39. Z a m . 89 i l u s l r . k l . I I I I , 120 g B I + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1 300 egz. Pap. L-57 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/d7691d5873597697e01365069b0f327c.pdf 0b24096be51e947e2b8512bf524e2d57 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4555 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1963 Subject The topic of the resource sztuka ludowa Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4234 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1963 t.17 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1963 t.17 z.2, s.112 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O t l S H F Kazimierz Pietkiewicz — THE ROLE AND IMPOR­ TANCE OF ARTISTIC FOLK TRADITIONS I N CONTEMPORARY POLISH CULTURE The author discusses the complex phenomena occurring today i n folk art, emphasizes the inte­ gration processes now taking place, coming to the conclusion that folk culture still has an important role to play, both in the folk artists' milieu and in enriching contemporary Polish culture. Barbara Bazielich — THE IMPORTANCE OF TECH­ NIQUE I N STUDIES ON FOLK EMBROIDERY (Śląsk cross-stitch embroidery taken as an example) This article brings an analysis of the technique of various types of cross-stitch embroidery. The descriptions and systematic treatment of the subject permit of an attempt to establish a certain chrono­ logy and to show the evolution of cross-stitch embroi­ dery, which in turn throws some light on the pro­ blem of ornamentation, creative milieus, directions of development, influences and dependence on con­ ditions. O L K A R T a r e j u s t b e f o r e t h e c o m i n g o f Spring a n d , i n connec­ tion with this, the masqueraders were to ensure s u c c e s s i n f a r m i n g a n d i n t h e f a r m e r s ' p r i v a t e life i n t h e n e w p e r i o d o f v e g e t a t i o n w i t h t h e a i d o f magic. The m a s k s ( b e a r s , g o a t s , h o r s e s ) w o r n b y t h e m a s ­ q u e r a d e r s i n t h e p r o c e s s i o n symbolize t h e e l e m e n t s favouring a n d impeding vegetation a n d the original purpose of t h e procession of masks w a s to w o r k m a g i c . As t i m e w e n t o n , n e w c h a r a c t e r s f r o m t h e village community a p p e a r e d ( t h e o l d woman, t h e old m a n ,t h e b a k e r , t h e gypsy, t h e policeman) a n d the whole custom b e c a m e a p r e t e x t f o r a v i l l a g e fete, w h i l e the people n o longer believed i n t h e effectiveness o f t h e magic r i t e s . Jacek Olędzki — TRADITIONAL VIEWS ON THE BEAUTY OF NATURE EXPRESSED BY PEASANTS FROM PUSZCZA ZIELONA (KURPIE REGION) The v i e w s o f t h e p e a s a n t s on t h e beauty of nature presented i n this article a r e material f o r r e s e a r c h w h i c h is to establish t h e relation between the artistic achievements a n d aesthetic sensitivity of t h e people. The statements, as made by the peasants themselves, a r e striking for their practical a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e beauty of n a t u r e . In m o s t c a s e s , v a l u e s b r i n g i n g r e a l a d v a n t a g e s p l a y a d e c i s i v e role in evaluating the beauty of t h e t i m e of theday, scenery, living creatures a n d plants. The author a t t r i b u t e s t h i s inability t o m a k e a n abstract e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e b e a u t y of n a t u r e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Kurpie peasants do not possess highly developed aesthetic sensistivity. This does n o t , of c o u r s e , e x c l u d e t h e existence among them of individuals w h o react strongly to t h e b e a u t y of t h e world s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m , without p a y i n g attention to p r a c t i c a l conside­ Janina Dydowicz — SHROVETIDE I N WIELKOPOL­ SKA The development processes taking place in the rural areas have led to the decline of the traditional customs connected with the primitive beliefs of the people in olden times. However, in Wielkopolska (Poznań region) the campaign to defend Polish culture from Germanization during the period when Poland was ruled by the partitioning powers resulted in the preservation of some of these customs in relatively pure form. The article describes the rations. manner of celebrating Shrovetide. These celebrations n O / l b C K O E H A P O K a s H M e a n e i s e B H i — POJIb M 3HAHEHHE HAPOAHOKt XyAOHCECTBEHHOfl TPAAMH.MM B COBPEMEHHOtf TLOJlbCKOVl KYJlbTYPE ABTOP pacciwaTpMBaeT cJiojKHbie HBJieHHH, 3aMe- laeMbie B coBpeMeHHOM H a p o f l H O M TBopnecTBe, noflnepKMBaeT nponcxoflsm;ne B Hame BpeMH o6o6maiomiie npou,eccbi M npwxoflMT K yBejKfleHHio, H T O Hauiew H a poflHOM K y j i b T y p e n p e f l C T O M T erqe ctirpaTb Sojibiuyw pojib, K a K B oSjiacTM H a p o f l H o r o T B o p n e c T B a , T a K w B flejie flajibHewiuero p a 3 B H T H H coBpeineHHOM K y j i b Typbi CTpaHbi. flKHHa^HflOBHi - MACJIEHMIIA B BEJIMKOH noJibiUE H O E H C K Y C C T B O B a p 6 a p a E a 3 e JI u x — MCCJIE^OBAHMH B OBJIACTM TEXHMKM MCnOJIHEHMH HAPOAHblX BbllUMBOK (Ha n p w M e p e CMJie3CKMX B M U I M B O K K p e CTMKOM). B CTaTbe npOBOflMTCH TeXHMHeCKHM aHajIM3 B b l U I M B a H M H „KpeCTMKOM" C y H e T O M p a 3 J ! M H H b l X BHflOB 3T0M BblUIMBKM. 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B C B H 3 M C S T H M p n J K e H b i e flojiiKHbi 6bijin MarMHecKMM o6pa30M noe 6jiaronoJiyHne KpecTbHH M M X o6ecneHHTb JIMH- SjiarococTonHwe B HacTynaiomMM BereTaqwoHHbiw nepwofl. M a c K M (MeflBeflb, K 0 3 a , jioiuaflb) c M M B O J i M 3 n p o B a j i n noxofle 3JieMeHTbi, o 6 y c j i O B J i M B a i o m M e BereTam«o JIMSO n p e n a T C T B y r o m w e ew, M nepBOHanajibHO M X m e c T B H e A O J I J K H O Sbijio M c n o j i H H T b M a r w i e c K y i o pojib. O f l H a K O n o c T e n e H H O B mecTBMH pajKeHbix CTaJiM no- fl U e K O j i e H f l 3 K M — TPAflJUTHOHUblE B3rJIHPM HA K P A C O T H nPMPOflbl B BbICKA3bIBAHMHX KPECTbHH K y P n E B C K O t f 3EJIEHOKE nyiiiM npeflCTaBJieHHbie B CTaTbe B3r^aflM KpecTbHH H a K p a C O T b l n p n p O f l b I HBJIHIOTCH M a T e p M a j l O M flJIH M C C J i e flOBaHMM, KOTOpbie flOJIJKHbl y C T a H O B M T b 3aBMCMMOCTb MejKfly xyflOJKeCTBeHHbIMM flOCTMJKeHMHMM M SCTeTM- ^jecKMM BOcnpMHTneM Hapofla. B Henocpe/jCTseHHbix BbicKa3biBaHMHx K p e c T b H H Ha T e M y o K p a c o T a x npwp O f l b l C K B 0 3 M T n o p a 3 M T e J I b H b I M npaKTMI^M3M. B 60JlbuiMHCTBe cjiynaeB peuiaromyio p o j i b B M X oueHKe npejiecTM pa3JiHHHbix n a c o B A H H , KpacoTbi neii3a>Ka, jKMBOTHoro M pacTMTeJibHoro Mwpa — Mrpaex B o n p o c MX cyujecTBeHHOH n o J i b 3 b i . 3Ty Hecnoco6HocTb a6C T p a K T H o r o B o e n p w f l T H H B c e x o S a a H H H n p w p o f l b i OBTOp oO^aCHHeT HeflOCTaTOHHO pa3BMTbIM 3CTeTMHeCKMM HBJIHTbCH HOBbie MaCKM, OTo6pa}KaK>m,Me pa3JIMHHbIX npeflCTaBMTejieM c e j i b c K O M o6mecTBeHHOCTH (6a6a, jxe%. M y B C T B O M KypneB. O f l H a K o n 3 3 T o r o H e c j i e ^ y e T ^ e ^ a T H nexapb, u , b i r a H , nojiMi^eMCKMM) j o 6 b i H a M s e e , K a K T a - B b l B O f l a , HTO CpeflM HMX H e T JlIOfleM, CnOCOOHblX CMJIbHO oKpyK O B O M , c T a j i jiMUjb n p e f l J i o r o M K yBeceJieHMHM M J I M - M H e n o c p e f l C T B e H H O p e a r w p o B a T b H a K p a c o T y jKaHDmero M M p a , He3aBMCMMO O T n o j i b 3 b i , K O T o p y i o I I I M J I C H s j i e M e H T O B B e p w B ycneuiHoe fleiicTBMe MaraMOJKHO M3 H e e M 3 B J i e H b . HeCKMX 3aKJIHHBHHH.. B 112 I** �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez P.P. WYDAWNICTWA ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE BIULETYN HISTORII SZTUKI, kwartalnik, ponad 100 str. dużego formatu, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata półroczna 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. POLSKA SZTUKA LUDOWA, kwartalnik, 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty materiał ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PAMIĘTNIK TEATRALNY, kwartalnik, ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. KWARTALNIK FILMOWY, około 100 str. druku, kilkanaście ilustracji. Cena 10 zł, prenumerata 20 zł, roczna — 40 zł. MUZYKA, kwartalnik, około 130 str. druku, liczne przykłady nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zl, roczna — 72 zł. PRENUMERATA Zamówienia i przedpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmowane są w terminie do dnia 15-go miesiąca poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty — przez: Urzędy Pocztowe, listonoszy oraz Oddziały i Delegatury „Ruchu". Można również zamówić prenumeratę dokonując wpłaty na konto PKO nr 1-6-100020 — Centrala Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch" — Warszawa, ul. Srebrna 12. <) Cena prenumeraty za granicę jest o 40 /o droższa od ceny podanej wy­ żej. Przedpłaty na tę prenumeratę przyjmuje na okresy półroczne i roczne Przedsiębiorstwo Eksportu i Importu „Ruch" w Warszawie, Wilcza 46, konto 2-6-71 w Narodowym Banku Polskim w Warszawie, ul. Warecka 10. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze zdezaktualizowane można nabyć w sklepie „Ruchu" przy ul. Wiejskiej 14 w Warszawie. Zamówienia spoza Warszawy należy kierować do Centrali Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch", War­ szawa, ul. Srebrna 12. Aktualne numery czasopism Instytutu Sztuki PAN są do nabycia w większych księgarniach miast wojewódzkich: Białystok — Lipowa 43 Bielsko — Dzierżyńskiego 3 Bydgoszcz — 1 Maja 17, Dwor­ cowa 14 Bytom — Kościuszki 4 Chorzów — Wolności 13 Częstochowa — A l . NMP 8 Gdańsk-Wrzeszcz — Grunwaldz­ ka 8 Gdynia — Świętojańska 47 Gliwice — Zwycięstwa 31 Grudziądz — Rynek 13 Inowrocław — Królowej Jadwi­ gi 31 Kalisz — Śródmiejska 14 Katowice — Warszawska 11 Koszalin — Młyńska, blok 12 Kielce — Sienkiewicza 30, Sien­ kiewicza 60 Kraków — Podwale 6 Lublin — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 68 Lódź — Piotrkowska 102a Poznań — Marcinkowskiego 21, Armii Czerwonej 37 Przemyśl — Franciszkańska 19 Radom — Żeromskiego 27 Rzeszów — Kościuszki 3 Sandomierz — płk. Skopenki 4 Słupsk — PI. Zwycięstwa 11 Sopot — Bohaterów Monte Cassi­ no 26 Sosnowiec — Czerwone Zagłę­ bie 23 Toruń — Rynek Staromiejski 30 Warszawa — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 7, Kredytowa 9, Pięk­ na 31/37, Bracka 20, Nowy Świat 35, Rynek Starego Miasta 22/24 Włocławek — 3 Maja 25 Wrocław — Kuźnicza 42 Zabrze — Wolności 276 S t o ł e c z n e Z a k ł a d y Graficzne. D . W . W - w a , P o d c h o r ą ż y c h 39. Z a m . i l u s t r . k l . m, 120 g A l + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1 300 157. egz. Pap. L-55. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/309bd46cb5c2e4c2bf9429a4271808e0.pdf e71ac4b730fe37bbdcdfb2ecb818785e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4703 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1963 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4366 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1963 t.17, z.3-4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1963 t.17, z.3-4, s.207-208 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F Roman Reinfuss — F O L K A R T I N RZESZÓW V O I VODSHIP AND R E S E A R C H C A R R I E D OUT T H E R E Folk art in Rzeszów Voivodship is greatly varied, and this is connected with the fact that this region is inhabited by a number of ethnographic groups, each with their own traditional culture. I n the northern and central parts, inhabited by Polish population, the following groups can be distinguishe: Lasowiaks (formerly from the Sandomierz Forest), the Pogórzans and three separate groups from Rze­ szów, Łańcut and Przeworsk. The southern and eastern parts are inhabited by Ukrainians, among whom the Ł e m k o w i e from the L o w Beskids and the Bojkowie from the Bieszczady Mountains stand out because of the different char­ acter of their highland culture. To the south of the part inhabited by the Ł e m k o w i e we find the Dolinians, who live in the neighbourhood of Ukrainian villages. The author of the article reports on the extensive research being carried on in the Rzeszów Voivodship. Apart from the large amount of existing literature on the subject, research is now being con­ ducted by: the Regional Museum in Rzeszów, the Art Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the Museum of Folk Building in Sanok. Roman Reinfuss — F R O M S T U D I E S ON F O L K SCULPTURE IN STONE IN T H E REGION OF T H E ŁEMKOWIE. P A R T I I , F I G U R E S . The folk sculpture of the Ł e m k o w i e can be di­ vided into three groups: 1. old sculptures, definitely bearing the stamp of historical styles; 2. modern sculptures, done with great technical skill, but reminiscent of plaster devotional figures i n their banality; 3. figures that have preserved the primi­ tive folk spirit, reminiscent of religious figures carved in wood. The author of the article analyses the last-mentioned group of sculptures. I n the region inhabited by the Ł e m k o w i e , these sculptures are linked with the production of the stone masons workshops there. The artistic work of the stone masons kept strictly to architectural sculptures — shrines and figures: figures on crosses in cemeteries and on wayside crosses and the figures in shrines. Out of the large range of figures representing Christ on the Cross, the author distinguishes several groups with specific formal features. Franciszek Kotula — " T A P E S T R I E S " — M O D E R N F O L K PAINTING IN T H E VILLAGES OF RZE­ SZÓW V O I V O D S H I P A new and particularly widespread kind of folk art today are the so-called "tapestries", which are paintings on paper, linen, or simply on the wall itself. These "tapestries" have become very popular in Rzeszów Voivodship, as they did all over the country after the First World War. They started being painted for sale after 1945 and their production developed mainly in centres which, on the one hand, could boast of rich traditions in ornamentation and, on the other hand, presented possibilities of selling them. The size of the "tapestries" is anything up to two sq. metres. The subjects vary considerably, from plant and animal motifs to whole "views" with human figures and animals against the background of a landscape. They are usually painted by women. The painting technique is marked for its naivety, primitivism and a tendency towards decorative stylization. This is one of the few kinds of folk art destined for use in the villages, where the "tape­ stries" are very popular. O L K A R T The genesis of the "tapestries" is, according to the author, to be found in the general tendencies of ornamentation in folk art; he points to the simi­ larity between the ornamentation of the "tapestries" and that of painted coffers (fig. 10, 11) embroidery (fig. 4, 5), etc. On the other hand, the so-called petty bourgeois taste has had an evident influence on the work of the artists painting these "tapestries" (fig. 13). Despite certain common features in the "tape­ stries" from various areas, there are some characte­ ristic groups among them which definitely stand out from the rest, bearing the specific features of various centres. This can be seen if only by comp­ aring examples from Rzeszów Voivodship with those from the Lublin Voivodship (Fig. 41). Stefania Krzysztofowicz, Ewa Snieżyńska GEOIS P A I N T E R S O F LEŻAJSK IN CENTURY — BOUR­ T H E 19th Leżajsk, which, thanks to the miraculous picture of the Madonna in the Bernadine Monastery there, was a town where religious festivals were held from the end of the 17th century to the end of the 19th century, was also the home of picture painters who, apart from making pictures for sale at the festivals, also painted pictures on commission for the burghers and the monastery. Apart from many anonymous works, there are some pictures with a signature. The authoresses of the article deal with the works of the following painters of the 19th century: Zachariasz Chodziński (fig. 1—4), Szymon Chodziński (fig. 5—6), Jakub Stankiewicz (fig. 8). T. Bąkowski and W ł a d y s ł a w B ą k o w s k i and F r a n ­ ciszek Ksawery Stankiewicz (fig. 11—15). They based their work on patterns seen in wood-cuts and engravings (fig. 16). Many of their pictures represent the Lelżajsk Madonna. Teresa Szetela — P A I N T E D G L A Z E D T I L E S F R O M LEŻAJSK The development of the production of glazed tiles in Leżajsk can be observed from the second half of the 18th century on the basis of the material avail­ able. The authoress traces the beginnings of this art back to a stove made in the second half of the 18th century, to be found in the Bernardine Church in Leżajsk (fig. 48—51, 52). The painted tiles described i n the article, which have been dated as work from the end of the 19th century, have measurements varying from 25 X 1 6 , 22 X 18 to 12.5 X 21.5 cm. They are made of ferrous clay and are painted with engobes. The background is of white slip. The colours found were: green, brown, blue and yellow. As regards artistic decoration, the Leżajsk tiles can be divided into three groups: 1. plant ornament­ ation; 2. animal motifs; 3. figure compositions, in which there is a set of tiles with battle scenes (fig. 29, 32, 34, 47), which can be attributed to the potter Wojciech Krystaniecki. Then there is a sep­ arate group of tiles from the "Subprefect's Manor House" in Leżajsk most probably dating back to the first half of the 19th century. Jadwiga Teodorowicz-Czerepińska — GROUP O F C H A P E L S W I T H COLUMNS I N JASŁO D I S T R I C T The article contains a description of a group of 50 brick-built chapels with columns, found exclusive­ ly in the district of Jasło. They date back to the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. 207 �n O J l b C K O E H A # O f l H O E P e ń H C p y c c — O HAPOßHOM XElIIOBCKOrO BOEBOflCTBA PoMaH MCKyCCTBE H C K Y C C T B O MMTMBHblM X a p a K T e p O M M C T p e M J i e H H e M K fleKOpaTMBHOÍÍ CTMJIM3aąMM. 3 t 0 OflMH H3 HeMHOrMX BHflOB Ha- poflHoro TBopnecTBa, B 2 C e m o B C K O M BoesoflCTBe HapoflHoe HCKyccTBO OMeHŁ. p a 3 H 0 C T 0 p 0 H H e BBMfly HajIMHHH p a f l a 3TH0rpacpMHecKMX rpynn, npeflCTaBJiaroinwx OTJiMHMTejibH b i e n e p T W C B o e ü TpaflMLiHOHHOií K y j i b T y p b i . B c e B e p Hbix h n,eHTpajibHbix p a ü o H a x , HacejieHHwx nojiaKaMM, BbicTynaiOT cjiejjyioiiiMe r p y n n w : JIhcobhkm ( H e K o r ^ a riyuia CaHfloinepcKa), I I o r y j K a H e m tpm OT,ziejibHWX r p y n n w jKWTeJieii J K e m o B a , JIaHbu.yTa w ü u i e B o p c K a . l O s c H b i e m BocTOMHŁie p a í í o H w BoeBOflCTBa H a c e j i e Hbi yKpaMHiiaMM, cpeflM K O T o p w x oTJiMHaioTca cBoeo 6 p a 3 H o ü K y j i b T y p o ü jieMKM — ropu,w npoJKHBaiomMe b H n 3 K H X B e c K M f l a x m öomkm — ropuw Eemafl. KDjKHee jieMKOB, n o cocejjCTBy c yKpawHCKMMM « e peBHHMM a C M B y T flOJIHHHHe. A B T O p C T a T b M 3HaKOMMT H M T a T e j l a c ycneuiHbiMM p e 3 y j i b T a T a M M MCCJieflOBaHMM, n p o B O f l H M w x Ha TeppMTopwM J K e m o B C K o r o B o e B O f l C T B a . X o t h b H a c T o n m e e B p e M H c y m e c T B y e r y J K e ô o r a T a a j i H T e p a T y p a n o OTOMy B o n p o c y , t o B e e me B e f l y T C H flajibHeiÍLUMe nccjieflOBaHHH, K O T O p b i e B03rjiaBJIHK>T JKeUIOBCKKM O K p y j K H O M M y 3 e Ü , Ü H C T M T y T M C K y C C T B riOJlbCKOM A K a f l e M M M H a y K m M y 3 e ü HapoflHoro CTpoMTejibCTBa b C a H O K e . P e Ü H d p y c c — M3 MCCJIE^OBAHMÍÍ K A M E H H b l X HAPOßHBIX C K y j I b l I T y P B JIEMKOBIHM3PoMaH HE. HACTb II — * H r y P H A H CKyJIblITyPA J I E M ­ KOB B KaMeHHOÍi H a p o f l H o ü C K y j i b n T y p e JleMKOBCKoro MOJKHO OTjiMHMTb T p M r p y n n b i : 1) flpeBHMe C K y j i b n T y p b i , H a K O T o p b i x oTHeTJiMBo B H f l H a ne^aib M C T o p M H e c K H X CTMJieií, 2) coBpeMeHHbie C K y j i b n T y p M , OTJIMHaK>IH.HeCH BWCOKMM TeXHMHeCKMM ypOBHeM M c n o j i H e H M H , ho n o C B o e í i 6 a H a j i b H o c r a , HanoMiiHaioH i w e mncoBbie C T a T y s T K M K y j i b T O B o r o xapaKTepa; 3) npMMMTMBHbie c p n r y p w , p a S o T b i H a p o f l H W X MacTepoB, HanoMMHaromMe flepeBHHHwe H 3 o 6 p a a t e H M a cbhtmx. paüOHa Abtop C T a T b M a H a j i M 3 n p y e T 3 T y n o w i e f l H i o i o r p y n n y . B JleMKOBCKOM p a í i o H e OHa c B « 3 a H a c MecTHbiM p e MecJioM KaMCHHbix flan MacTepoB. Mx TBopnecTBo oxBaTbiBajio ceíinac b CBoeM 6brry KOTopbiM flepeBHa nojib3yeTca n KOTopbiü TaM oneHb nony- jiapeH. y T B e p s c f l a a , h t o „ k o b p w " CBH3aHbi c o6ll(mmm TeH«eHLíMaMM H a p o f l H o r o n p w K j i a ^ H o r o MCKyccTBa, aBTop C T a T b M y K a 3 b i B a e T H a a H a j i o r M i o M e s i f l y mx o p H a M e H TMKOM M p a C n M C b l O C y H f l y K O B (MJI. 10, 11), BbllHMBOK (mji. 4, 5) m T . n . C flpyroM CTopoHbi Ha „ K O B p a x " 3aM e T H o C K a 3 b i B a e T c a bjimhhmc T a K H a 3 . „ M e m a H C K o r o BKyca" (mji. 13). HecMOTpa H a H e K O T o p w e o6niMe MepTbi cBofiCTBeHp a 3 J I M H H b I X paÜOHOB CTpaHbl, M03KHO 6e3 T p y f l a B w ^ e j i M T b c p e ^ M hmx x a p a K T e p H b i e flJia O T f l e j i b H b i x M e c T H o c T e i ł r p y n n w ; 0 6 stom mojkho j i e r K o CyflMTb XOTH 6 b l COnOCTaBJIHH paa o6pa3HOB M3 5KeLUOBCKOrO M JlK>5ejIbCKOrO BOeBOflCTBa (mji. 41). Hbie „KOBpaM" CTecpaHMH KmMuiTocpOBMH, Eßa CHeacMHbCKa — M E - II1AHCKME XCMBOnMCIIbl X I X B E K A B JIE2KAÏÏCKE B JlejKaiicKe, KOTopbiił, OJiaro^apa M y ^ o T B o p H O M MKOHe B o J K b e i ł M a T e p M b M O H a c T b i p e EepHap^MHOB, ö b i J i , H a H M H a a c K O H u a X V I I flo KOHi^a X I X b., MecTOM I i p e C T O J I b H M X n p a 3 A H M K 0 B , JKMJIO T a K J K e M H o r o x y flO>KHMKOB-MKOHOnMCL(eB. KpOMe paßOT, CBa3aHHbIX C n p a 3 f l H M K a M M , OHM BbinOJIHHJIM 3 a K a 3 b I M e m a H C T B a H M O H a C T b i p H . Hapafly CO MHOrMMM aHOHMMHbIMM KapTMH3MH M M e e T C a p a f l K a p T M H n O f l n M C a H H b l X MMeHaMM mx McnojiHMTejieii. HacTOHmMH CTaTbH nocBHin.eHa TBopnecTBy cjieflyio- m « x xyjj,o>KHMKOB X I X B . : 3axapnaui Xo«3mhckm (mji. 1—4), IIImmoh Xofl3MHCKM (mji. 5, 6), HKy6 O r a H K e B M H (mji. 8), T. Bohkobckm m B j i a f l M C J i a B Bohkobckm, * p a H L ( M L i i e K K c a B e p b i C T a H K e B M H (mji. 11—15). 06pa3- fljia mx p a S o T SbiJiM rpaBiopbi Ha flepeBe m 3 C T a M n b i (mji. 16). Bojibuioe MecTo b mx TBopiecTBe u.ai«M 3aHMMaji o6pa3 JlejKaiłcKoił EoroMaTepM. Tepeca IUeTejia — POCnMCHHE M3PA3IIbI JIEyKAÏÏCKA CKyjibnTypy cTporo apxwTeKTOHHHecKoro x a p a K T e p a — HacoBeHKn m CTaTyu: cpwrypHbie M3o6pameHMH H a M o r i w i b H w x m npMflopojKHWx KpecTax, a TaKJKe b n a c o B e H K a x . CpeflM ö o j i b i i i o r o KOJiHnecTBa MccjieflyeMbix p a c n a T M Í i aBTop BWflejiaeT r p y n n w , otJ i M i a i o m e c a cneuMcpMHecKMMM d p o p M a M j í . O n p o H 3 B O f l C T B e M3pa3L(0B b J l e j K a ü c K e y n o M M H a e T CH y>Ke B MCTOHHMKaX CO BTOPOM nOJIOBMHbl X V I I I B e K a . K nepBbiM n a i w a T H M K a M 3 T o r o npoM3BO^CTBa aBTop CTaTbM oTHocMT neHb (BTopaa n o j i O B M H a X V I I I b.) b K O C T e j i e O.O. B e p H a p f l M H O B (mji. 48—51, 52). B CTaTbe onMCbiBaioTCH pacnMCHbie M3pa3L(bi KOHi^a X I X BeKa pa3MepoM 25 X 16, 22 X 18, flo 12,5 X 21,5 cm. K o T y j i H — „KOBPH" — C O B P E M E H HAH HAPOÄHAfl JKMBOIIMCb > K E I U O B C K O H REPEBHM OpaHHMiueK Bojibiuoe pacnpocTpaHeHwe nojiynnjia b HacToamee BpeMH H O B a a O T p a c j i b H a p o f l H o ü jKMBonMCM, T a K H a 3 . „KOBpw", a B J i a r o m w e c o ö o ü n a H H O H a ö y i v t a r e , n o j i o r a e jih6o H e n o c p e f l C T B e H H o H a c T e H a x . 3 t o t bha H a p o f l Horo T B o p n e c T B a CTaji n3BecTeH nocjie n e p B o i ł M n p o BOÜ BOMHbl H OCOÖeHHO HaCTO B C T p e H a e T C H B SCeillOBckom B o e B O f l C T B e . B npoflaJKe 3tm „kobpw" CTajiM noHBjiHTbca n o c j i e 1945 r . IIpoM3BOflCTBO ,.kobpob" p a 3 BepHyjiocb rjiaBHbiM o6pa30M b T e x MecTHOCTax, r ^ e Ohm CflejiaHbi M3 3 K e j i e 3 M C T o i ł tjimhw m n o K p w T b i c o c T a B J i a e T noSeji. B pacKpacKe n p e 3 e j i e H b i ü , KopMHHeBbiM, r o j i y ß o M m a c e j i T b i i i aHroôaMM. 3>üh oöjia^aeT uBeTa. B JieKOpaTMBHOM OTHOlIieHMM J I O K a i i C K M e M3pa3H,bI flejiHTca Ha 3 r p y n n w : 1) p a c T M T e j i b H w í í opHaMeHT, 2) ÍKMBOTHblM OpHaMeHT, 3) 43MrypHbIM OpHaMeHT (b 3T0Í1 r p y n n e B w / j , e j i a e T c a 6aTajiMCTMHecKaa TeMaTMKa (mji. 29—32, 34, 47). Haflo nojiaraTb, h t o mx aBTopoM aBJiaeTca r o H ^ a p B o f t u e x K p M C T a H e r i K M . O T ^ e j i b H y i o r p y n n y n p e f l C T a B J i a i o T M 3 p a 3 u , w M3 „ n o f l C T a p o c T M H C K o ü y c a f l b ö b i " b JlejKafícKe n o Bcew B e p o a T H O C T M c n e p BOií nOJIOBMHbl X I X BeKa. c oflHoíí cTopoHbi cyiqecTBOBajiM 6oraTbie Tpa^MqwH n p M K J i a f l H o r o M C K y c c T B a , c flpyroń J K e — B 0 3 M O J K H o c T b c6biTa. P a 3 i a e p b i „kobpob" flOCTMrawT 2 M e T p o B . Mx TeiaaTHKa oneHb pa3Hoo6pa3Ha ; OHa oxBaTbmaeT p a c T M T e J l b H b i e M aCMBOTHbie MOTMBbI, a T a K J K e Liejibie neH3a»cji c ( p H r y p a M H j i i o f l e i i w hímbothwx. A ß T O p a M M „KOBpOB" BBJiaiOTCH npeHMyH(eCTBeHHO H i e H m W H b l . M X »CMBOnMCb O T J I H H a e T C a HaMBHbIM, n p H - 208 HepenMHbCKa-TeoflopoBMM • — rpyíHIA COBEH C KOJIOHHAMM B PAÏÏOHE HCJIO HflBMra HA- B C T a T b e paccMaTpMBaeTca r p y n n a 50 KaMeHHbix HacoBeH b BMfle aommkob c kojioHHaMM Konica X I X m Hanajia X X bb., K O T o p w e BCTpenaroTca mckjiiohmTejibHo b paMOHe MecTenKa Hcjio. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A A R T Y S T Y C Z N E I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , kwartalnik, ponad 100 str. dużego formatu, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata półroczna 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , kwartalnik, 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty materiał ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PAMIĘTNIK T E A T R A L N Y , kwartalnik, ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y , około 100 str. druku, kilkanaście Cena 10 zł, prenumerata 20 zł, roczna — 40 zł. ilustracji. M U Z Y K A , kwartalnik, około 130 str. druku, liczne przykłady nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PRENUMERATA Zamówienia i przedpłaty na prenumeratę przyjmowane są w terminie do dnia 15-go miesiąca poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty — przez: Urzędy Pocztowe, listonoszy oraz Oddziały i Delegatury „Ruchu". Można również zamówić prenumeratę dokonując w p ł a t y na konto P K O nr 1-6-100020 — Centrala Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch" — Warszawa, ul. Srebrna 12. Cena prenumeraty za granicę jest o 40% droższa od ceny podanej wy­ żej. Przedpłaty na tę prenumeratę przyjmuje na okresy półroczne i roczne Przedsiębiorstwo Eksportu i Importu „Ruch" w Warszawie, Wilcza 46, konto 2-6-71 w Narodowym Banku Polskim w Warszawie, ul. Warecka 10. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze zdezaktualizowane można nabyć w sklepie „Ruchu" przy ul. Wiejskiej 14 w Warszawie. Zamówienia spoza Warszawy należy kierować do Centrali Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch", War­ szawa, ul. Srebrna 12. Aktualne numery czasopism Instytutu Sztuki P A N w większych księgarniach miast wojewódzkich: Białystok — Lipowa 43 Bielsko —• Dzierżyńskiego 3 Bydgoszcz — 1 Maja 17, Dwor­ cowa 14 Bytom — Kościuszki 4 Chorzów — Wolności 13 Częstochowa — Al. NMP 8 Gdańsk-Wrzeszcz — Grunwaldz­ ka 8 Gdynia — Świętojańska 47 Gliwice — Zwycięstwa 31 Grudziądz — Rynek 13 Inowrocław — Królowej Jadwi­ gi 31 Kalisz — Śródmiejska 14 Katowice — Warszawska 11 Koszalin — Młyńska, blok 12 Kielce — Sienkiewicza 30, Sien­ kiewicza 60 Kraków — Podwale 6 Lublin — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 68 są do nabycia Łódź — Piotrkowska 102a Poznań —• Marcinkowskiego 21, Armii Czerwonej 37 Przemyśl — Franciszkańska 19 Radom — Żeromskiego 27 Rzeszów — Kościuszki 3 Sandomierz — płk. Skopenki 4 Słupsk — PI. Zwycięstwa 11 Sopot — Bohaterów Monte Cassi­ no 26 Sosnowiec — Czerwone Zagłę­ bie 23 Toruń — Rynek Staromiejski 30 Warszawa — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 7, Kredytowa 9, Pięk­ na 31/37, Bracka 20, Nowy Świat 35, Rynek Starego Miasta 22/24 Włocławek — 3 Maja 25 Wrocław —• Kuźnicza 42 Zabrze — Wolności 276 S t o ł e c z n e Z a k ł a d y Graficzne. Z . 2. w - w a , Podchorążych 39. z a m . 467. i l u s t r . k l . I I I , 120 2 A l •!- k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1 G00 egz. Pap. L-56. �•a a -5 mZ o» m O 3 Wmm 2 S O; Oí « ^ ^ . - ¡«f •1 •'S — • * , g r o o o© ] :^V.^r* """ti* * ^ « f Ô L : > ^>».^>t" * £ * ~ 0 *S 3 O i '-as-^îA. V i L ç - ^ ^ P ^ 5 p ö p . , esa " 7 <Sf>y o . 3 a* ^11» «MM MM* ^é-fs 1 111 V; ' Q¿ © }«0 O S » £ ~ ¡SD « 5 ) 0 ^ 3 i o. ^ o . •2Í - s , *— ł � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/a2ae2224333693bef35c2b01df305dd1.pdf b5cd56255cdef0079de040d025c5154c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4737 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4397 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.3; s.181-186 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F The issue devoted to the folk art of the Kurpie region (northern part of Warsaw Voivodship) opens with an article by: Adam Chetnik REGION THE FOLK ART OF THE KURPIE The author of the article, merited cultural leader and researcher into folk art, gives a monographic review of the folk art of the Kurpie region in his article, describing all fields of this art in brief. The Kurpie region folk art developed on the basis of the raw materials of the region. The simplest expression of this art are ornaments built of sand or cut in lawns (fig. 2, 4), mostly done by children. The ornamentation generally met with in localitities on the shores of lakes were objects made of shells (fig. 6) and also of multicoloured pebbles, which were used for making mosaics- in church interiors. A l l the wealth of the forests was fully utilized in this folk art. F i r cones are used for making small decorative objects (fig. 33), from horn, the Kurpie people make walking stick handles, powder horns, horns for shot, drinking horns (fig. 9), hunting horns chandeliers, snuff boxes, buttons, etc. A l l over the Kurpie region wherever there is clay we find decorative ceramic ware (fig 7) which does not greatly differ in its ornamentation from the ceramic ware of prehistorical times or those of the earliest ages. A m ber ornaments occupy an important place in the art of the Kurpie people. There was a lot of trading in amber here in olden times and the trade roules led from Greece, Rome and Arabia. Our knowledge of amber here in olden times and the trade roules led 18th century. It included: beads, pendants, pipes, snuff boxes, walking stick handles, etc. Thanks to the local iron smelting furnaces, the people of the Kurpie region had their own iron, which enabled them to develop the art of blacksmithery, particularly in the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century. Particulary worthy of mention as regards decorative features are the iron fittings of carts (fig 10, 11) the iron finishings of wooden figures and the ironwork in the little churches. Plant and animal motifs predominate in the ornamentation. The author refers to ornamentation cut out in lawns as being the first form of the decoration that later took the form of paper cuts. The same patterns are to be found cut in wood. Up to the middle of the 19th century, the patterns were cut out in coloured cotton fabric, and they in turn were replaced by paper cuts. Among the oldest kinds of folk art in this region is basket work. Various kinds of baskets, "measures" (fig. 15), utensils (fig. 18) were made from roots, osier, reeds, etc., straw was used for the weaving work on chairs (fig. 17) and stools, for making hats, shoes and mats. The forests in the region promoted the development of building from wood, which is in almost the same style all over the area under review. The cottages were mostly built of pine wood, the apex wall facing the street with a garden in front and a cherry orchard and an apiary at the back. Stables were built onto the apex wall and the cowshed and barns were built further away from the cottage. The cottages were built coillon style and the roof was either covered with wood tiles or thatched. The typical elements of this kind of building were the finishing of the apex in the form of horns, birds' or horses' O L K A R T heads. There was also ornamentation carved out in the wooden planks above the windows and on the top beam (fig. 19, 20) and the doors were also decorated. Today, the Kurpie art of building is dying out, or is being distorted. A separate branch of architecture are the entrance gates to important buildings or places (churches, cemeteries) (fig. 22—24). Beams were a decorative element of the interiors and an important role in room ornamentation was played by paper cuts, „spiders" made of straw and curtains made of tissue paper. Chairs and stools were often ornamented too, and the stoves were painted blue with various decorative motifs painted on top. Wood carving was richly represented in the Kurpie region (in linden, willow, birch, oak and peartree wood). I n former times, the carvers only used a sharp knife, and sometimes a small hatchet. They made figures of the saints {fig. 26—28), walking sticks with carved heads of birds and animals (fig. 30, 31), small altars and household equipment decorated with incised ornamentation. Toys for children were also carved out of wood (fig. 32) and sometimes they were made of clay or dough. The paintings of the Kurpie region were not only represented by pictures of the saints painted on paper, linen and tin sheet by wandering artists. Mural paintings were also to be found in the wooden churches or on the walls of foresters houses (hunting scenes). Stoves were ornamented with painted decorative motifs, as were the window frames of the houses, coffers and earthenware utensils. However, painting is not one of the arts that have lasted till today in the Kurpie region. Thanks to the cultivation of flax and the breeding of sheep in this region, the art of weaving was very widespread. Apart from linen and cloth, colourful decorative fabrics were also made there, namely, small carpets, the rugs known as „kilims", both striped and checked. The predominating colours were: green, red, brick colour, orange, yellow, blue, and sometimes a little black. The oldest type of „kilims" known, the striped ones, date batik to the years 1800—1860. Already in the years 1880-90, Kurpie decorative fabrics were highly valued in the towns. Today, the C.P.I, i A . (Folk Art Industry Cooperative) concerns itself with the development of weaving in this region. An art which is today dying out and which was once among the most outstanding achievements of the Kurpie region is embroidery. Shirts, aprons, table cloths and towels were all decorated with embroidery (fig. 36). The lace made in the Kurpie region was no less outstanding (fig. 34, 35). A separate field of art was the decorative work connected with various rites, namely, New Year cakes (fig. 37) and wedding and kermis cakes, the Easter eggs known as „pisanki" (fig. 41) and wax votive figures (fig. 38). The author attributes the interest taken by the people of the Kurpie region in musical instruments to their love of music. Back in the times when shepherds tended flocks and hunting was widespread, various kinds of horns were used. The people also made fifes, pipes, flutes and shawms from wood or iron tubes, as well as trumpets, whistles from clay and also violins carved out of linden or willow, as well as violas and, as time went on, clarinets too. The set of musical instruments also included drums and later on, the accordeon too. Music, singing and dancing were very popular indeed in the Kurpie region. Most of the songs were ritual ones. The most charac183 �teristic were the couplets composed for various occas­ ions; there were also historical songs, particularly about the war against the Swedes in which the K u r pie people fought. A field of art that was the exclusive domain of the women, was making artificial flowers from coloured paper and tissue. The men used to go in for gun-smithery, usually working at the forges. These pro­ ducts included firework mortars for festive occasions, cast at the local foundries. Attempts were also made to cast the figures of saints in iron, as well as parts of iron crosses, and bells of lead, zinc and brass. But these products called for getting supplies of raw material in from elsewhere and for this reason their production was stopped. In places where the necessary raw material was available the art of stone masonry was developed: handmills for grinding and frontier posts were made (fig. 42), as well as ornamental fonts for churches, and sometimes holy figures, as is indicated by the figure of „Christ the Sorrowful" that has been found. „A11 the folk art of the Kurpie region was largely dependent on the materials available in the given locality, and was mostly based on the motifs suggest­ ed to the artists by the local scenery within the limits of their needs, interests and natural talents." Anna Kutrzeba-Pojmarowa - T H E F O L K A R T O F T H E K U R P I E REGION AND T H E INDIVIDUALITY AND V I T A L I T Y O F T H I S H I S T O R I C A L , C U L T U R A L REGION The authoress discusses the views of various authors concerning the Kurpie region, singling out various approaches, the historical, the evolutionary and the tendency towards compromise, represented, among others in the works of Adam Chetaik, merited regional leader. She considers that the region is cre­ ated by a separate process of the social, economic and cultural shaping of a given territory. The shaping of the Kurpie region was above all dependent on the existence of the forests there, and this accounts for the predominance of occupations connected with fore­ stry and working with timber and the character of various fields of folk art (wooden products, basket-work). The forest known as Green Forest remained untouched until settlers came there during the wars against the Swedes in the 16th century. At that time it was surrounded by six towns and settlements foun­ ded by the nobility. The forest was penetrated by royal hunters and collectors of wild bees'honey. New settlements were founded, but in spite of the pri­ vileges granted it, the region was backward as re­ gards economic development. The Kurpie people, surrounded by villages owned by the gentry set up on the best soil, felt themselves separate. Apart from their occupations in the forest and their work of cultivating the land, they were engaged in the amber trade, and blacksmithery was started there much la­ ter, in the 19th century. The name „Kurpie" was used as a rather contemptuous nickname. As the area of the forests decreased, the region also dimi­ nished. The slow rate of changes in the traditional cul­ ture is attributed to the slower rate of general chan­ ges in that region by the authoress. This accounts for the fact that numerous old forms have survived, which were most certainly even more widely spread in the past. In the regional costume, however, one sees, apart from the old elements, (type of fabric, arrangement of colours in striped fabric, etc.) influen­ ces from the costumes of the gentry coming from the neighbouring Masurian region. As a result of the poor development of agriculture, the population looked for other additional occupations, which also favoured the development of handicrafts and folk ornamentation. 184 Jacek Olędzki - WOOD C A R V I N G I N T H E N O R T H ­ ERN PART OF T H E KURPIE REGION The very number of works that have been pres­ erved testifies to the important place carving occupied in the folk art of the people of the Kurpie region. This cannot be shown either by museum collections or by the existing literature on the subject, and this is why the author is basing his article on the rese­ arch he himself carried out in the localities under review within the framework of the research conduct­ ed by the Ethnographic Institute of the Polish Acade­ my of Sciences in the years 1958-1963. The material discussed in the article is all from the last hundred years. The earliest references to wood carvings are from the beginning of the X V I I I century and testify to the fact that already at that time wayside crosses existed, the earliest known ones dating back to the beginning of the X I X century (fig. 2, 3). Apart from shrines, carving was also found independent of archi­ tecture. Most of the artists were professional carvers who treated their skill as a means of making a living, which is proved by the life stories of some wood carvers of the second half of the X I X century, recon­ structed by the author, namely Andrzej Kaczyński (fig. 6—10), Łukasz Raczkowski (fig. 12—14, 16), Czer­ wiński and E j m a . The life stories of some of the later wood carvers justifies the statement that they began to carve quite by accident, mostly as a way of passing the time while tending herds of cows, and that it was only as they got very proficient in the art that they began to treat it as a trade: J a n Sęk, Bronisław Polak (fig. 30, 31), Konstanty Chrostek and Franciszek Golan. Most of the wood carvers of the Kurpie region came from the carpenters' and joiners' milieu. The profes­ sional character of their work had a lot to do with the changes taking place in the wood carvings of the Kurpie region, resulting largely from the endeavours of the artists to save labour. This is most probably the reason why, as time went on, the former very hard types of wood were replaced by softer kinds that were easier to carve. A great deal of importance is attached, even to this day, to the procedure of drying wood, which is a com­ plicated business, showing that it is the result of long standing traditions. In order to protect the carving from the effects of the wood drying up after its com­ pletion, the carvers of today, like their predecessors of the old days, prefer to work with split logs without the core. Some of them carve from planks and on planks. The properties of the block of wood imposed on the artists the way of carving the object, depending on the shape of the block, its structure and arrange­ ment of the rings. However, as the art of carving developed, the shape of the figure was no longer de­ pendent on the original shape of the block of wood used. The tools for carving were those usually used in the countryside for working with wood as well as planes, broad chisels and drills. Some of the artists ! also used special carving chisels, that were first made by the local blacksmith. The carvers of today have I factory made sets of chisels at their disposal, but not all of them use them, for instance, Golan only uses a penknife for his carving, and Sęk, first and foremost, a kndfe. Describing the techniques of carving applied by several leading artists, the author shows how differ­ ent they were in each case. Chrostek in particular has '"' a very original way of working. Unlike the others, before he starts carving, he makes sketches of his own figure in the mirror and, adapting the pose of the figure to his observations, breaks away from the ori­ ginal shape of the block of wood he is to carve, �where as the other folk artists are influenced by the shape of the block of wood. As regards the subjects of the carving, the objects made in the Kurpie region can be divided into sacred and lay subjects. Up till the beginning of the X X century, lay subjects were only found in toys, orna­ mented untensils and the carved handles of walking sticks (fig. 4—5), the toys usually being made by people who were not carvers by profession, for their children or grandchildren. After the First World War, the lay themes spread to other kinds of carvings and in recent times have come to play a very important role in them. Changes can also be observed in the scope of reli­ gious subjects, from which certain themes have dis­ appeared, for instance, the figure of St. Florian and St. Roch, and the figures of the Virgin and Child and the „Pieta" which have been replaced by others. The „Crucifixion" and St. John Nepomucen are subjects still enjoying unfailing popularity. As regards formal features, the carvings done in the Kurpie region have not been uniform. This result­ ed both from differences of workmanship between the professionals and amateurs and the different approach of individual artists, not to mention the different tech­ niques and methods of carving applied in various periods. In conclusion, the author analyses the problem of the aesthetic sensitivity of the artists and, on the basis of the interviews he conducted with them, comes to the conclusion that aesthetic sensitivity is not propor­ tional to the creative activeness of the artists. On the contrary, the most outstanding artists have aesthetic views and reactions that have a much narrower scope of values than those of the mediocre ones. Halina Olędzka - R E S E A R C H ON P A P E R C U T S I N THE KURPIE REGION The contemporary paper cuts, which today are not made for the rural people but for the urban milieu, have departed quite considerably from their traditio­ nal forms because of this separation from their origi­ nal function and locality. For this reason, in her re­ search on Kurpie region paper cuts, the authoress of this article mainly based her work on old paper cuts that had been preserved or reconstructed in the loca­ lities in question, and on the information gained from ilie people living in that region. Working on this ma­ larial, the first attempt has been made by the authoress to show the various kinds of paper cuts made in the Kurpie region and to give an outline of their evolu­ tion. The genesis of the Kurpie paper cuts is still uncert­ ain. Some light is thrown on the problem by their undoubted link with Jewish paper cuts which are chronologically earlier. It maybe that the Kurpie paper cuts began to be made following the example of the Jewish ones, or perhaps the idea of making them was suggested by the Jews as the main suppliers of paper to the rural areas, or the idea may have been born under the influence of the factory made paper curta­ ins and ..ząbki" (decorative shelf paper) at the time when the paper mills, then being set up in connection with the growing use of paper at the beginning of the 19th century, began to supply them. The oldest document referring to paper cuts dates back to 1830 and concerns paper „curtains". The earliest kind of „curtains" for pictures were the so-called „Wstążki" (ribbons) made of thin white paper, and later of tissue paper (fig. 6). At first crinkled tissue was used, later smooth tissue paper, but decor­ ated with rows of cut-outs. The custom of decor­ ating pictures with curtains was kept up, the various ornamental motifs remained, but their arran­ gement underwent a change as the paper cut makers became more skilled in the technique (fig. 8, 10, 11). The first coloured paper cuts, which began to be made later, date back to the turn of the first and second halt of the 19th century. The oldest type of these paper cuts „Leluja" (lily) in a vase, at first had the same form in the whole of the region under review, but as time went on a wealth of different forms came into being (fig. 12—19). The „Leluja" motif is also found in striped patterns (fig. 20) which was a later type than the single „Leluja". Another variety of the striped patterns are the socalled „Lalki" (Dolls) (fig. 24). The striped patterns show a tendency towards the application of large decorative forms in interiors, and the „leluja" motif in rows is associated with the more widespread form of interspersion of the „leluja" motif, as new additio­ nal elements such as bird, heart and cross motifs were introduced as time passed. Later, in addition to the former type of „Leluja" a new kind was introduced, which had a division of the upper part into what was called „korony" (Crowns). As regards the technical process of cutting out, in the first phase there was a division into: base, centre part and crowning part. The different parts established the constructional pattern to which the decorative motifs were subordinated. Departures from the typical constructional pattern of paper cuts are found in cases (after 1920) when they began to be made to order for customers living outside the locality. A different evolution of the „leluja" type of paper cuts is noted in the north-eastern part of the Kurpie region, which can probably be attributed to the fact that paper cuts began to be made there 20 years later than in the rest of the region under review. Here, the different constructional pattern of the paper cuts is due to the use of plant motifs instead of the geometrical ones applied elsewhere. Here too, the custom of making paper cuts died out earlier. A special version of the „leluja" motif in the K u r ­ pie paper cuts were those known as „hostie" (fig. 46, 47), but according to the information obtained from the local people, these paper cuts were not generally used in the interiors of rural homes. Among the oldest types are those known as „circles" or „stars", made of white paper with a coloured centre. As the paper cut makers mastered the technique, the cut-outs beca­ me smaller. As time went on the coloured centres disappeared and the cut-outs were brought right into the centre. After 1900, a new type of „star" paper cut made its appearance (fig. 53). In interior decoration as a whole, an important role was played by figurative paper cuts: birds (fig. 1, 58), horses with riders (fig. 55), most of them being multicoloured. Among the bird motifs, the most popular were cocks and peacocks, and they were made with special care to get an exact liking to the birds. Paper cuts representing definite subjects, made more often by men than by women, were often made by using guiding patterns that could be repeated. The scope of the various subjects was usually limited to two or three villages neighbouring with each other. Apart from the paper cuts, there were other wall decorations in the Kurpie region, such as „Kokardy" (Bows) (fig. 56') and „Pajączki" (Spiders) (fig. 57). In the development of the art of making paper cuts in the Kurpie region, the most important role was played by their function in decorating the walls and the individual inventiveness of the paper cut makers. �n O / l b C K O E H A P O f l H O E BbinycK, n o c B H i u e H H b i í í Hapo^HOMy t i c K y c c T B y K y p ( c e B e p H a a n a c T b BapmaBCKoro Boe- nëBCKoro paiïoHa BOflCTBa), OTKpbIBaeTCH CTaTbeíí AflaM X e H T H M K — H A P O f l H O E T B O P H E C T B O K Y P ITEB B OBJIACTM M C K Y C C T B A ABTOP, fleaTejm 3acjiy>KeHHbiii H iiccjieflOBaTejib napoflHoro MCKyccTBa, flejiaeT B cBoeii cTaTbe rpacpMHecKMÍi 0630p MOHO- KypneBCKoro TBopnecTBa, /rasaa KpaTKyro xapaKTepncTMKy Bcex ero O T p a c j i e í i . M C K V C CTBO KypneB pa3BMBajiocb Ha 6 a 3 e Cbipba, HaxofliiBu i e r o c H Ha MX T e p p i i T o p w i . CaMbIM npMMMTMBHblM npOaBJieHMeM MX TBOpnecTBa aBJiajiiicb opHaiweHTbi M3 necKa JIMÔO, Bbipe3bi- BaeMbie Ha MypaBe (MJIJI. 2—4); STMM rjiaBHbM oôpa30M 3aHHMajIMCb fleTM. ô e p e r a x B O « Qbum pacnpocTpaHeHbi M3flejiMa H3 p a K y i i i e K (MJIJI. 6) M p a 3 H o n , B e T H O H r a j i b K w ; name B c e r o OHM npiiMeHHJiMCb B MosanKe, yicpamaBLuew KOCTejIbl. Ha BoraicTBa McnoJib30BaHM itypnëBCKOfi B HapoflHOM nymw pafioHa. M 3 uiMiiieK ^ejiajiMCb M3 pora — noJiHOCTbio SbiJiM TBopnecTBe jKMTejieii aToro yKpameuMH (MJIJI. 33). KypnëBmwHbi, -raw MMeeTca rfle rjiMHa, BbicTynaeT xyflo»cecTBeHHaH KepaMMKa (MJIJI. 7), KOTopaa no CBOe- My opHatvieHTy HeMHorwM PO3HMTCH OT vœpfijiuvi npe/ibiCTpoMHecKoro MJIM paHHewcTopMHecKoro nepMOfla. BOJIbLUOe MeCTO 3aHMMaK>T M3flejIMH M3 «HTapH. B öbijibie BpeiieHa 3flecb Bejiacb KpynHaa ToproBJin HHTapein, a ToproBbie nyTM BejiM M3 Tpeu;MM, PMMB M ApaBMM. CßeflenMH o KypneBCKtix a m a p H b i x i i 3 flejiMax MMeiOTca c X V I I I B. B mix TOBOPMTCH O ôycax, noflBecKax, TpyôKax, TaôaKepKax, pynKax K najiKan M T.n. Bjiaroflapa co6cTBeHHbiM MeiajijiyprMHecKMivi nenaM MecrHbie «CMTejiM MMejiH cBoe ?Kejie30. 3TO cnocoôCTBOBajio pa3BMTMio Ky3HeHHoro peMecjia, AocTMrmero SHaHMTejibHoro pacirseTa B X V I I I M B Hanajie X I X BB. OcoSeHHO O T M e i a j i M C b fleKopaTMBHtie sjie.MeHTbi OT- AejiKM SKjmajKeü (MJIJI. 10, 11), JKeJie3Hoe ocpopMJieHMe flepeßaHHbix CKyjibnTyp M l a c o B e H . nepBbie nonbiTKii pesnoro opnai-iema flejiajiiicb no cJioBaM aBTopa Ha MypaBe. B opHaMeHTe npeoÔJiaiiajiM paCTMTejIbHbie M 3BepMHbie MOTMBbl. AnajiorHHHbie y3opbi noBTopajiMCb B p e 3 b 5 e no ijepeB.y. J\o cepeflwHbl X I X B. flejiajIMt'b Bbipe3KM (T3K Ha3. BbmUIlaHKH) 113 i^BeTHoro nojioTHa, a noTOM CTajiii ynoTpeôjiHTb fljiH 3T0ÍÍ ueJiH GyMary. Cpe/xw ôoraToro pa3HooGpa3iia MOTHBOB oôpamaiOT BHMMaHt-ie „Jiejiioe" a T3K>Ke KpyjKKii w 3Be3flbi. KypneBCKaa no ceń fleHb ycneixtHO pa3BMBaeTca. (JIIIJIMM), Bbipe3K.a K CTapeüiiiMM BHflaM MecrHoro Hapojj,noro TBopnecTBa npMHaAJieJKMT njieTeHMe. M3 KopHeü, iiBbi, KaMblIIia, TpOCTHMKa M T.n. nJiejIM KOp3MHbI, „MCpKM' (MJIJI. 15), nocy/ry (MJIJI. 18), TaôypeTbi M CTyjiba (MJIJI. 17), m j i a n b i , oôyBb, U,MHOBKM. n y m a npeflocTaBjifljia B03M0?KH0CTb pa3BMB3Tb jj,e- peBHimoe cTpoMTejibCTBO, pacnpocTpaneHHoe -jyTb jni He no BceMy paííoHy. M3ôbi, rjiaBHWM o6pa30M, CTpoii- jiMCb M3 cocHbi jiMu,eBOM CTopoHOił K yjiMu,e. IIcpeA M360ÍÍ HaxoflMJiCH najiMcaflHMK, a no3afli-i — BiiujHeBbiii cafl M n a c e K a . KOHIOIXIHIO npMCTpaMBaJIII K jiMi;eBofi C T e n e . j^ajiee CTpoMJiwcb KOPOBHHK M aiviöap. I l o C T p o i i K M CTaBMJiMCb TaK Ha3. cnocoöOM „na w ę g i e ł KpblLUH KpbIJIMCb TOHTOM MJIM COJIOMOM. BepXHaa nacTb KpbiuiM y K p a m a j i a c b poraMii, nTHHbMMii JIMSO KOHCKMMM rojioBaMM HT o cocTaBjiHjio xapaKTepHbiw 186 3JieMeHT nocTpoiiKH. yKpamajiMCb pe3b6oiï OKOHHbie najiHHHMKH, BepXHaa oajiKa (MJIJI. 19, 20), flBepM. B naCTOHinee BpeMH cTpoHTejibHoe MCKyccTBO B K y p n ë s miffle HCKaîKaeTca M npMxoflMT B ynaj^OK. OTflejibHyio OTpacjib apxMTeKTypw cocTaBjiaiOT B O poTa B oö-beKTax ocoöoii BajKHocTM, K a K HanpMMep KOCTeJibi, KJiaflÔHma (MJIJI. 22—24). OflHMM 113 sjieivieHTOB BHyTpeHHero yKpameHMa M3ÔM öbiJia ßajiKa. CymecTBeHHyio pojib MrpajiM TBKJKÖ Öy.MSiKHble Bbipe3KM (BbIIJ,MHaHKH), nayKM M3 COJIOMbl M 3aHasecKM M3 nanMpocHoii 6yMarn. HacTO yKpauiajiiicb TaKiKe TaSypeTbi M cKaMeeHKii; neHM KpacMjiH rojiy6oií CMHbKoii BbiBOfla Ha HMX pa3JiMHHbie y3opbi. flepeBHHHbie KOCTejibi M HacoseHKi-i BoraTo yKpamanHCb pe3HWM opHaMeHTOM no flepeBy, stMBonMcbio M «HTapeM. OcoöeHHO nonyjiapHbiM VKparueHMeM noCTpoeK öbijia flepeBanHaa pe3b6a, BbinojiHaeMaa njioTHMKaMM M CTOJiapaMM. Pe3b6oii yKpamajiMCb TaKiKe MejiKMe npeflMeTbi flOManiHero oÖMXOfla. K nJioTHMHbeMy MacTepcTBy aBTop, MejKfly npoHMM, npMHMCJiaeT Bbipe3aHHbie na flepcBbax OOPTHMHŁM 3HaKii M pe3HOH OpHHMeHT Ha ÖOpTHMHbeÜ yTBapM. 3TOT BMfl iicityccTBa coxpaHMjiea JJ,O Tex nop, noKa M3/;aH npMKa3 j i H K B M f l a u i i w B n y m e ô o p T e i i . pyKOHTKH, pora flJia n o p o x a M py>KeüHoíi flPOÔM, flJlH HHTbB (MJIJI. 9), OXOTHMHbM pora, JIJOCTpbl, TaSaKepKM. nyroBMiibi M T.n. no Bceii TeppwTopMM M C K Y C C T B O He SMJI Pe3b5a no j;epeBy nojiyiMJia B KypnëBixinHe UJMpoKoe pacnpocTpaHeinie. MaTepwajiOM cjiyjKiiJiH juina, iiBii, Gepeaa, rpyoja. TorflaixiHMe CKyjibnropbi M p e j MMKH nOJIb30BajIMCb MCKJIIOHHTeJIbHO OCTpO OTTOMeHHbl.vl HOJKOM, a B HeKOTOpblX C J i y i a a X TOnopMKOM. Onu BbinojHin.iM cpMrypbi cBHTbix (MJIJI. 26—28), najiKM, 3 a K O H H e H H b i e p e s H W M H rojioBaMM n T M i ; M 3 B e pefi (MJIJI. 30, 31), ajiTapn M flOManiHioio yTBapb, yxpaUieiIHyiO pe3HbIM OpHaiVlOHTOM. il,eTCKMe MrpyuiKH fleJiajiMCb M3 J4epeBa, rJiMHbi M TecTa 32. JKMBonMCb KypnëBiu,MHbi oxBaTbiBajia ne TOJibKO CBaTbie o6pa3a, BbinojiHaBLuweca Ha 6yMare, noJiOTHe JIMÔO 5KecTM CTpancTByioiUMMM xyjj,OH'HHKaMM. BcTpenajiacb TaKiKe n a c T e n n a a »MBonMCb B jiepeBaHHbix Kocrejiax MJIM B jiecHbix CTopo>KKax (oxoTHHHbM ciJ,eHW). HjBeTHbiM opnaMeHTOM yKpamajiMCb B M3oax nenn, cyn^yKM, rjiMHaHaa nocyaa. OflHaKO co BpeMeHeM >KHjjonucb B KypiicBiqMHe CTajia rjioxHyTb. Bjiaroflapa 3anaTMaM jKHTejieii — OBi4eB03CTBy u Bos^ejibiBanMio Jibua — 5ojibiijoe pacnpocTpaiieHMe iiojiywii.no xyflO/KecTBenHOL' TKanecTBO. KpoMe nojioTna u cyKHa Bbi^ejibisajiMCb aeKupaTMBHbie I K U H H apliOH paCI^BtíTKli: KOBpW, KMJIMMbl, nOJIOCaTbIC JIMÔO i. KJieiKy. B pacicpacKe npeoôJiaflajiM cjieflyioiuMe MBCTa: 3ejIOHb!M, KpacHbl/ł, KIipnilHHblii, OpaHiKeBblli, ÄCjiTbiii, rojiyöoü, mpe^Ka nepHbiH. K CTapefiniMM ii'jBecTHbDi Ha M nojiocaTbiM KHjiiiMaM, TaK Ha3. „nacaKaM'' npwHaflJieíKaT KMJiiiMbi c 1800—1860 rr. Vxc B 1880—90 roflax KypnëBCKiie TKUHH BbicoKO LiOHMJiiicb B ropoflax. B name BpeMH TKa'iecTBo oneKawr KoonepUTMBbl Il,eHTpajIM HapOflHOH M XyflOJKCCTBeHHOM IipOMblUJJieHHOCTM. HeKor^a cJiaBiijiiicb KvpncBCKne BMIUMBKM. Hbiiie 3TOT BMfl MCKyCCTBa OTMJipaOT. BblIUHBKaMH y K p a m a ­ jiMCb copoHKM, nepeflHMKii, cKaTepTM, nojiOTenua (MJIJI. 36). ToHKocTbio iicno.Tiiciinn oTjiM'iajiiiCb TaKiKe K y p nëBCKwe Kpy>KeBa (MJIJI. 34—35). OcoSbni BHfl l TBop iecTBa npeflCTaBJiHJio KyjibTo- boe MCKyccTBO BCHKoro po/^a: npa3aHMMHoe neneHMe no cjiynaio H o B o r o ro^a, cBaseö (MJIJI. 37) xpaMOBWx ii])U3flHMKOB; nacxajibHbie nucaHKM (MJIJI. 41), BOCKOBbie npiiHoiueHwa (MJIJI. 38). ilHTepec KypnëB K .uyabiKajibHbiM WHCTpyMCHTaii CBH3aH, 110 MHeiIMlO aBTOpa, C MX My3bIKajIbHOCTb'0. C nacTymecKMx M oxoTHuibi-ix BpeMeH MM ôbiJiM M3- aecTHbi pa3.nM4Horo po/ia pora fljia wrpu. BbiAeJifaiBa- �j r a c b T a K H t e n u m a n K M M3 B e p S t i , CBMpejiH, cpjieiłTbT M A Y A H H3 flepeBa JIMGO 5Kene3a, T p y S b i , rJiMHHHtie CBHCTKM, CKpwnKH, Bbipe3aHHbie M3 jinnw JIMGO Bep5w, K0HTpa5acbi, KJiapHGTW. B MysbiKaJibHOM aHcaMGjie H a XOAHJICH TaKJKe óapaóaH w no3AHee rapMOHb. My3biKa. nemie, TaHiibi G b i j u i oneHŁ nonyjiapHbiMii BM^aMii iiCKyecTBa B KypneBLUHHe. C p e f l H neceH npeoójiaAaJiii oupn^oBbie. XapaKTepHWMH G b u n i „npwneBbi"; cnaraeMbie Ha cjiynaii; coxpaHMjmcb TaKJKe JicTopiinecKwe necHi-i, oco6eHHO co BpeweH uiBeflCKMX BOMH, B KOTOpwx jKtiTejiH K y p n e B i n i i H W npnHMMajin ynacTiie. IlcKjiroHHTejibfio B p y K a x JKeHHJMH S b i j i a Bbl^CJIK.-l ncKyccTBeHiibix óyMarw. . H T O i^BeTOB M3 UBeTHoii naniipocHofi II xpaHHJiiicb pa3JiMMHbie C T a p b i e rpopiibi, KOTOpbie E npejKHee BpeMa BbicTynajw BepoaTHo B 6ojiee vm~ poKoii cTeneHM. OAHaKo B oflejKfle, HapHfly c npejKIIIIMH s j i e M e H T a M i i (POA T K a H e i i , p a c i ^ B e T K a n o j i o c a T b i x TKaneii „pasiaki" M T.A.) HaGjiioAaeTca BJiMHHMe OACJKAbi RieJiKoii m j i a x T b i , 3acejiHioiii,eM c o c e A H M e M a 3 y p w . BBiiAy cjiaooro p a 3 B i i T H a 3eMjieAejiMH HaceJieHwe n c K a j i o AonojiHiiTejibHbix 3aHHTMH, MTO M e ł K A y npo- MHM cnocoGcTBOBa.no paaBiiTHio pe.Mecjia H HapoAHoro npwKJiaAHory IiCKyecTBa. HąeK OjieHfl3KM — A E P E B H H H A H E CEBEPHOH KyPnEBlUMHE CKYJIBnTyPA ?Ke KacaeTca opy>KeMHoro peMecjia, TO OHO 6 b u i o uejiHKOM B p y K a x MyjKHMH. OHM BbipaGaTbiBajiM CBOM M3flejiwa rjiaBHbiM o 5 p a 3 0 M B K y 3 H M u a x , B K 3TJ1M H3flejIMHM npilHaflJIOKajIM, B MaCTHOCTM MOpTMpbl flJIH CajlIOTOB, OTJIMBKa KOTOpbIX npOH3BO/(I1- •rejibCTByeT x o T a 6 w casio KOJiiinecTBO coxpaHHBUiMxca oGbeKTOE 3 T o r o poAa. H u B My3eiiHbix KOJIJieKl MaX, jiact n a MecTHbix MeTajuiyprwHecKMX npeAnpnaTnax. /J^cjiajiMCb TaK?Ee nonbiTKii OTjiMBaTb dpiirypu CBHTWX M KpeCTbl M3 JKOJie3a, KOJIOKOJia M3 CBMHIia, IIHIIKa H MCflH. H O cnyCTH HOKOTOpoe BpeMa BbipaGOTKa ¡13AejiMM, Tpe5oBBBLLiiix npnB03Horo cwpbH, npeKpaTiijiacb. TaM, r f l e HMejiocb Ha MecTe noflxoiiHiu,ee cbipbe pa3BMBajiocb KaMHepe3Hoe peiwecjio: BbipaGaTbmajiHCb pymibie >KepHOBa, Me>KeBbic CTOJIGM (HJIJI. 4 2 ) , iiepKOB- iibie KponiiJibHimbi xyAOJKecTBeHHoii paSoTbi a nopoii u cTaTyi-i CBHTbix, o nem, HanpiiMep, iiaii^eHHaa CTaTya Xpi<icTa. cBiifleTeJibCTByoT TBopnecTBo K y p n e a G a 3 w p o B a J i o c b na M a r e p i i a J i e , KOTopbiM pacnojiara.n flanHbiii paiioH... Ha MOTHBax, oKpyyKaiomeii npupoAbi, KOTopbie miipoKO ncnojib30n a j i i i B CBoe.M TBopnecTBe MecTHbie xy/i,0JKHMKM, yflOBjieTBopna no inepe CBOMX npnpojKAeHHbix flapoBaHiiń flyxoBHbie 3anpocbi it y K p a m a a noBceflHeBHwii 6biT. Anna KyTLueóa-IIoMHapoBa — KyPnEBCKOE JKJ43HEHHOCTM MCTOPMHECKOrO PEmOHA KyJIbTYPBI B CTaTbe paccMaTpHBawTCH B3rjiaAM pasjiMHHbi:-: aiiTopoB Ha wcTopwK) KypneBCKoro peniOHa, npiiHeM c-TMenaiOTCH Tpii TOMKH 3penna: JicTopicnecKaH, S B O jiioijnoHMCTCKaa u KOMnpoMiiccHaa. B nacTHOcra, 3'ry iioeJieaHioio npeACTaBJiaer B CBOHX Tpyziax 3 a c j i y j K e n iibiii pernoHajibHbin fleaTejib A A H M XeHTHMK, KOTopwii oiHTaeT, HTO periion CO3AUCTCH nyTCM enerinajibHoro npo;;ecea eoiinaj:bHo-3KOHOMHHecKoro n KyjibTypnoro (bopMiipoBauMa onpeAejieHHOii TeppiiTopnii. P a s s i m i e KypniiBCKoro perwoHa GÓIJIO B nepByro o n e p e A b o G y cjior.jieiio cymecTBOBanncM n y m i i ; OTCiofla nepeaec CBji3aHi-ibix c Heii 3aiiHTiiii, a TaK>Ke x a p a K T e p p a 3 - jiji>nibix OTpacjifrft napoAHoro iiCKyecTBa (AepeBO, n / i e T e n n e ) . TaK na3. 3e.)ieiiaa n y m a O b u i a sacejieHa n o 3 A HO, B X V I BeKe, BO B p e i i a uiBeACKMx BOMH. E e oKpy- niajm TorAa uiecTb ropoflOB 11 uuiHxeTCKiie noce.TeHiia. li n y m y npoHHKajiii KopojieBCKiie CTpejiKH u OOPTHHKII. B b i p o c j i n HOBbie iioceJieHMa, Tein He MCHee, HCCMOTPH na pa3iibie penioiia npiiBMjierriM, OTCTaBajio. SKOHOMnnccKoe >KnTeAM pernoHa, pa3Bin'iie OKpyHieniibie AepeBHHMii MejiKow uiJiaxTbi, BjiaAeBiueM S o j i e e njioAOpOAHblMII Se.MJIHMII, COXpaiIHJIH HyBCTBO CBOeil OÓOCOÓJieHHOCTH. H a p H f l y C 3aHflTMHMU, CBa3aHHbIMM C 3 8 MCA.neHHeM u c G.inisocTbio n y m a , OI-IM 3aHMMajincb HHTapHbiM npoMbic.noM; jiimib B X I X B. nojiyHii.no Tai«Ke pa3BHTne Ky3HenHoe pemecjio. Ha3Banno , . K y p n e ' ' HOCHT x a p a K T e p npo3BMu;a. I I o Mepe Toro K3K KOPMMJICH JieCHOH MaCCMB KOpHHJiaCb TaKHCG 'icppiiTopnH peniOHa. 3a.viefljienHbie Tewnbi npeoopajKeHiia r I;H B jiMTepaType npeAMeTa OTO He HaxOAMT CBoero oTpajKeiiiiH. MiieHi-io nooTOMy aBTop CTaTbM oriMpaeTCH na p e 3 y j i b r a T b i paMOHHbix iiccjieAOBaHMM, npoBeAeHi.biM MM B 1958—1963 rr., B paMKax paGoT K a D H H e T a STHorpacpMii IIojibCKoii AKafleMHM H a y K . PaccMaTpwBaeMbie MaTepwajibi oxaaTbiBaiOT nepwoA nocjieAHnx era JIOT. CaMbie p a H H i i e y n o M i i H a m i f l o CKyjibHTypo r noasjiaiOTca B nanajie X V I I I B., CBMAeTejibCTBya o TOM, 'ITO y?Ke TorAa cymecTBOBajiit npiiAopo>KHbie KpecTbi; CaMbie pilHHlie J13 M3BeCTHbIX HaM oGbeKTOB nOHBJl.nwcb B nana.ne X I X B. (HJIJI. 2, 3). H a p a A y c nacoBeHKaiui cymecrBOBajiM TaKJKe CKyjibnTypbi Ge3 apxnTeKTypHoro oupopMjieiiMa. Ccbijiaacb Ha TO, HTO MaTepnajibHaa KyjibTypa Kyp­ neB pa3BHBaJiacb Ha ocuose 6oraTbix pe3epB0B A e peBa, AOCTaBJiaeMoro n y m e i i , B CMJiy Mero jKMTejiH onMcwBaeMoro paiioHa npeKpacHo BJiaAejin TexHHKOii oGpaGoTKM AepeBa, aBTop B CBOMX MCCJieAOBaHMHX yTBep>KflaeT, HTO OTOT cpaKT nrpaA HeMajiyio pojib B pasBMTMM KypneBCKOM CKyjibnTypbi. HA- PO/IHOE TBOPHECTBO M B O n P O C C B O E O B P A 3 M H M O TOM, KaKoe Gojibinoe aiecTo 3aHMMajia CKyjibTypa napoAHOM HCKyccTBe KypneB yGeAMTejibHO CBMAe- TpaAHMMOH- Hoii Ky.ibT.ypbi aBTOp oóbaciiaeT 3aMeflJieHHbiM Te.\inoM n p e o G p a j K e H M M 3Toro perwoHa. no3T0My TaM c o - TBopi^aMH ee GbiJiH TJiaBHbiM o6pa30M n p o o p e c c j i o iiajibHbie CKyjibnTypbi, cHiiTaBirme CBoe TBopnecTBo IICTOHHIIKOM AOX0AOB. OG 3T0M CBHAeTejIbCTByiOT HccjieAOBaiiHbic asTopoii GMorpaobHii CTapbix csyjibnTOPOB BTOPOW nOJIOBMHbl X I X B., K3K AHAJKeW K a uiiiibcKii (MJIJI. 6—10), J l y K a u i PanKOBCKH (HJIJI. 12—14, 16), HepBiiiibCKM II ŚiiMa. M S oHorpacpMM no3AHeMiunx CKyjlbllTOpOB CJieAyeT, HTO OHM HaHMHajIM TBOpMTb HIICTO cjiynailiio, OOBIHHO Ha nacT6Mii;ax, xoAa 3a K O - poBaMU n jiniiib no aiepe cosepineHCTBOBauMa CBoero peuecjia nocTenemio iiaHHHajiw CHHTaTb ero CBoeii n p o c p e c c u e ł i ( H H C e H K , B p o H M C J i a B IIOJIAK, K o H C T a H T b i KpocrtK, <ł>paimnuieK To-naH. BojIbHIHHCTBO KvpneBCKMX CKyJIbnTOpOB B npouijioM paooTajiii iuioTHi-iKaMH ii CTojiapaMii. IIpo<peccnoHajibHbiii xapaKiep n x paóoTbi Bbi3Baji B KypneBCKoii CKyjibnType nepeMeebi, KOTopbie B 3HaHiiTejibHoii CTeneHH .MOJKHO OÓbHCHHTb CTpeM JieHHCM K MaKCMMajIbiioii 3K0H0MHM Tpyfla. 3 T O GWJIO, n o j K a j i y n , npHHHHOii BbiTecucHMH APCBecMHbi TBepAbix nopoA 6oJiee MHTKMK B , GoJiee noAaTjiMBbiMii RJIH oópaGoTKH nopoAaMM. Bojibiuoe 3HaHemie no ceii aeHb npwAaeTCH npO' i;eccy cyuiKii APcecciiubi, conpoBO?KAaeMOW cjioJKHbiMH IipneMa.MH, C B I I f l e T e j I Ł C T B y i O m M M H B03HiiKa.nn noA BJiiiai-iHeM cTapoń O TOM, HTO OHM TpaflMi^MH. ^ J I H Toro, HToGbi npeflOTBpaTMTb paecbixaHiie CKyjibnTypbi, TenepeuiHite M a c T e p a , TOHHO 'raK j K e , KaK M AasHHinHiie, npeAnoMHTaioT ynoTpeGjiaib RJIH paGoTbi pacTHTP.nbHI.IM f T R ' 1 1 . .inillPHHblH COpHeBUHM. HeKOTOpbie BbipesbisaioT CBOM CKyjibnTypbi 113 AOCKH M H a A O C K e . OcoGeHHOCTM HypKM HaBa3bIBajIM XyAO>KHMKaM MeT0A OOpaÓOTKH CpOpMbl. COTBCTCTBCHHO 0'IOpTaHHHM nypiiii, ee CTpyKType u pacnojiojKennio CJIOOB. O f l H a K o no Mepe coBepnieHCTBOBaHna peMecjia onepTaHHa (purypbi Tepajin CBoe CXOACTBO C nepBOHaHajibHWMM onepTaHwaMM. 187 �Jinn pe3b6bi y n o T p e ß j i a n M C b M H C T p y M e H T W , u i w p o K O npnMeHHeMb:e B iiepeBHe npw o6pa6oTKe flepeBa, a TaKJKe p y S a n K H , j i o j i o T a , CBepjia. K p o i n e Toro HeKOTopwe M a c T e p a n o j i b 3 0 B a j i n c b fljia pe3b6bi cneiiMaJibiibiMH flOJiOTaMM, paSoTbi Ky3HGi^0B. TenepeuiHMe CKyjibriTopbi pacnojiaratoT n a o o p a M M d p a S p w H H b i x floJIOT, o f l H a K O H e B c e HMH n o j i b 3 y i O T c a . T a K , H a n p H M e p , rojIHH B b i p e 3 b I B a j I TOJIbKO n e p O H H H H b I M HOJKMKOM, a CeHK — B nepByio OHepejxb HOJKOM. O n w c b i B a a n p o u e c c paöoTW HeKOTopbix Sojiee vn~ B e C T H b l X C K y j I b H T O p O B , a B T o p yKa3biBaeT H a pa3JIM4Hbie MeTOflbi, n p M M e H a e M b i e oT/iejibHbiMM MacTepaMM. O c o ß b i M C B o e o 6 p a 3 H e M OTJiMHaeTca T B o p n e c T B O XpocT e K a , K O T o p w i i B npoTMBonojiOJKHOCTb flpyrMM jjeJiaji npeflBapMTejtbHO 3apwcoBKy coöcTBeHHoii cpnrypbi, H3yHHB ee nepe/i 3epKajiOM M npHHopaBJiMBaa 3aTeM K H a S j n o j J a e M M M o S t e K T a M , yxojjMT OT dpopM n y p K i i , KOTopbix T a K C T p o r o n p w f l e p j K M B a j i H C b B CBOMX cKyjibnTypax flpyrae HapoflHwe MacTepa. Ho cBoeii TeMaTHKe KypneBCKaa CKyjibriTypa flejiHTca H a pejinrH03Hyio M cBeTCKyio. flo Hanajia X I X B. c B e T C K a a T e M a T M K a ncnoJib30Bajiacb TOJibKO B H r p y m Kax, flOMauíHeíí yTBapw, pe3Hbix p y i K a x najioK (MJIJI. 4—5). OTMeTMM, HTO wrpyiiiKH /jejiajiH C K o p e e HenpocbeccMOHaJibi fljia CBOMX fleTeö JIMSO B H y K O B . nocne n e p B o i i M M p o B o ü BOHHW CBeTCKaa TeMaTMKa n p o H H K J i a M B CKyjibiiTypy a ß n o c j i e i n ł e e BpeMa HanMBacT s a H H M a T b B c e öojibuiee MecTO. — 3aMeMaioTca TaKJKe nepeMeiibi B pe.jiMrH03HOM T C M a T M K e c K y j i b m y p . HeKOTopwe T e M b i MCHe3aiOT, H a npMMep M3o6pajKeHiia C B . c&jiopwaHa M C B . Poxa, EoroMaTepi-i c Mjiajjei-meM M IlbeTbi ycTynaioT MecTO flpyrMM. HonpejKHeMy n o n y j i a p H a T e M a „PacnaTMa" M C B . H H a HenoMyiiei-ia. c SojibiiiHM npMTOKOM ßyMarw, B. XIX CTaJiM nocTaßjiaTb KOTopyio B Hanajie OTKpbiBiuMeci 6y- BHOBB MajKHbie dpaSpwKM. CTapeiłuiMfi flOKyMeHT, ynoMMHaromMii o Bbipe3Kax, j i a T M p o B a H 1830 r. M KacaeTca SyMajKHbix „3aHaBecoK". CaMofi paHHeił dpopMoü 3aHaBecoK nofl o6pa3a Bbijiii ,.jieHTbi" ,MJIJT. 6) M3 TOHKOÍÍ 6eJiOM SyMarw, a no3flHee M3 nannpocHoii SyMarn. nepBOHanajibHo MX sejiajin B c6opKy, a noTOM rjiaflKHMM, yKpamaa paflaMM n o pe30K. OSbinaM yKpamaTb o6pa3a saHaBecKaMM coxpaHMJica flu CMX nop, coxpaHMJiMCb TaKJKe OTfleJibH b i e M O T M B b i o p H a M e H T a , o f l H a K O , no H H K M Menajiacb MX dpopMa (MJIJI. 8, Mepe pocTa Tex- 10, 11). H,BeTHbie Bbipe3KM npMHafljieJKaT K Sojiee no3/j,neM.y nepMOfly (cepe^MHa X I X B.). M X CTapei'iuiMM ran — „jiejiioa" ( j i M j i M a ) B Ba30He — BbiCTynaji CHanajia B nofloSHOM obopMe no Bceü TeppiiTopMM, HO C TeneH M e M BpeiHeHM CMJlbHO M3MeHMJICa M n O J i y H M J I pafl H O cbix pemeHMÜ (MJIJI. 12—19). T O T >K6 MOTMB ..Jiejiioii'' BbicTynaeT Ha .neHTax (MJIJI. 20), HO 3TO SoJiee no3flHee aBJieHi-«;^ H GM oTflejibHbie „jiejiiOM". ĘpynZ: BM/IOM j i e H T O H i i b i x Bbipe30K a B J i a i o T c a T a K H 3 3 . „KyKJIbl" (MJIJI. 24). JleHTOHHbie BbipG3KM SblJIM 3aflyMaHbi, KaK j j e K o p a i n M M 6 o J i b u i M x d p o p M , B TO B p e M a K a K „JiejiiOM B pa/o," C B a 3 a H b i c 6ojiee HIMPOKMM aBJieHMeM pacnpocTpaHeHHa oflMHOHHbix „Jiejnoił", K KOTOpbiM co BpeMeHeM npMSaBjiajiHCb HOBwe ojieMCHTbi, i:aK, HanpiiMep, iioaBJiaeTca cep^eneK, MOTMBM mmi, Co BpeMeHeM KpecTa. napafly co CTapwM TunoM „jiejnoii" HOBBIM, KOTopbifi CBepxy flejiMTca na l iaCTM, Ha3bIBaGMbie KopoHaMii. B TexHMHecKOM npoLiecce Bbipe3biBaHMa K nepBOM c p a 3 e n p H H a ^ J i o K a j i o flejieHMe uejioro na nacTi-i: OCHOBa, cpejjHaa nacTb M 3aBepuieHne. OT/rejibHbie i a c T M wrpajiw K O H C T p y K T M B H y i o p o J i b , OT K O T o p o i i saancejiM a j i e M e n T W y K p a m e H M a . OrcTynjienMH OT 3TOM TMnMHHoii c p o p M b i B b i p e 3 0 K i i a n a j H i c b c MOMenTa, K o r ^ a n a B b i p e 3 K H (nocjie 1920 r.) CTajiM n o c r y n a T b 3 a K a 3 b i w 3 B n e . l Ho CBOHM cpopMajibHbiM nepTaM KypnëBCKan CKyjibnTypa oneub pa3Hooöpa3Ha. 3TO oÖTaacHaeTca p a 3 . i l I I H H a M M MOKfly M a C T e p C K M M M n p o c p e c c H O H a j i b H b i x H iienpocpeccMOHajibHbix CKyjibnTopoB, MX HHAMBM- flya.nbHblMM OCOÔeHHOCTHMH, pa3JIMHH0H TeXHMKOM MCI I O J I I i e H M a M p a 3 J I M H H b I M M CnOCOßaMM p a ß O T b l B OTflejibHbie nepnojjbi BpeMenH. B 3aKJiiOHeHMe asTop CTUTBM anajiM3MpyeT Bonpoc 3 C T e T M H e c K o r o BocnpnaTMa C K y j i b n T o p o B M H a OCHOBaHHM npoBe/ieHHbix MccjieflOBaHMíí flejiaeT BWBO.H, HTO r j i y ö M H a GCTCTMHecKoro B o c n p u a T w a H e nponopM i i o n a j i b H a T B o p n e c K O J i aKTMBHOCTM. HanpoTMB Kpyr HHTepecoB öojiee Bbi/iaromMXCa xyflOJKHMKOB M MX 3CTeTMHecKoe BocnpMHTHe cpe^Heü pyKM. rajiima Ojienfl3Ka — 113 I1EBCKMX B L I P E 3 0 K cjia6ee, neM xyaojKHMKOB MCCJIE/I.OBAHMł KYP- CoBpeMeHiibK- xy^oiKOCTseiiHbie B b i p e 3 K H ( B M I I I I i n 6yMarn jjejiaioTCH c e ü n a c HG jijia n y j K j j jxepeBHH, a fljia ropoflCKoro jKMTejia. M BOT B oTpbiBe OT CBoeii nepBOHanajibHOM abynKUMM M OT MecTa CBoeI'O B O S H I I K H O B e H M H , BbipC3KH 3 H a > i M T e j I b H O OTOUIJIH OT CBOMX Tpa/IHIIHOHHblX OpOpM. ÜO3T0MJ' a B T O p B CBOMX HccjiejiOBaHHax rjiaBHbiM oöpasoM ororpaeTca na coxpaHMBUjneca B paüone CTapbie JIMÖO peKOHCTpyMpo- H3HKM) B a H H b i e M a T e p n a j i b i , a TaK>Ke na y c T H b i e MHCpopMaIJHM, coopaHHbie n a Meere. Ha ocHOBe Bcex STMX waT e p w a ^ O B ö b i j i M ci;ejiaHbi nepßbie n o n b i T K H oTo5pa>i<eH M a dpopM K y p n e B C K H X B b i p e 3 0 K M n p o i j e c c a nx pa3BMTMH. r e n e 3 M C OToro B M f l a w c K y c c T B a H e B b i a c H e H . YcTa«OBjieua j i H i i i b H e c o M H e n i i a a C B H 3 b c e ß p e i i c K O M Bbip e 3 K 0 M , KOTOpaa xpOHOJIOrMHeCKM B 0 3 H M K J i a p a H b i u e . M o j K e T öbiTb BCJiefl 3 a Heñ n o a B M J i a c b M K y p n e B C K a ü , a MOJKeT 6biTb ee BjjoxHOBMTejibaMM 6bijiM eBpeM, K a t ; r j i a B H b i e nocTaBmMKM 6 y M a r w B flepeBHio; ö b i T b MOJKCT TaKJKe, HTO Mbicjib o B b i p e 3 K a x poflMJiacb nojj B j i M a HueM coK cpaopMHHo M3roTOBJiaeMbix 6yMa>KHbix 3aHaBeH , , 3 y 6 H M K O B " ßjiH y K p a i u e H w a nojioK B CBH3M HHOM n p o u e c c pa3BMTMH T i i n a „ J i e j i i O M ' ' xapaKTepen J1.JIH ceBepoBOCTOHHoii nacTM KypneBLUMHbi. n o Bceii B e p o a T H O C T H 3TO oSbHCHaeTCa T e M , HTO T a M B b i p e 3 K M cxa JIM noaBJiaTbca flBa/;n;aTbio rojiaMM no35Ke, neM B ocTajibHbix nacTHx MsynaeMoro aBTopoM panoHa. 3j;ecb M i i o e n o c T p o e H M e B b i p e 3 K i i CBa3aHO c p a c T H TOJIbHblMH M O T H B a M H , a ne c reoMeTpMHecKMMM, K a i e B 3PJTIIX M e C T H O C T a X . 3flCCb TaKJKe 3T0T BHJI iicKyc- CTBä 3arjiox panbine. Oco6biii pafl „jiejnoü" cocTaBjiajiw B K y p n e B C K o w B b i p e 3 K e „npoccpopbi'' (MJIJI. 46—47), o/iHaKO no MneHMIO 3 I i a T O K O B OHM BCTpeHajIMCb ne BO B c e x K p e C T b a H CKMX flOMaX. K CaMbIM C T a p b l M TMIiaM IipriHajJJICJKaT ..Kpyn-i'', iiasbiBaeMbie 3 B e 3 j i a M n , M3 Sejioii 6y.\iarn e useTHbiMM cepe/jMHKaMM. no Mepe OCBOCHMH TexmiKii i : p o p e 3 M c T a H O B a T c a Bce Gojiee MejiKiiMM. nocTenenno ¡(BeTHbie eepejjMHKM nfqe3aioT, a n p o p e 3 M flocTMraioT cepefliiHbi. nocjie 1900 ro^a n o a B J i a e T c a H O B b r i i BMJI, 3Be3flbi (mur. 53). Bo B H y T p e H H e M yÖpaHCTBC H3ÖbI GoJibuiyio p o j i b urpajiM cpnrypiibie Bbipe3KM: nTMi_(bi (MJIJI. 1, 58), nae3flHMKM n a Jiouiaflax (MJIJI. 55) npeMMymecTBenHO p a 3 H 0 I 4 B C T H b I 0 . P Î 3 IITMII 0C060M n o n y j i a p H O C T b M H0JIb30BajIMCb IICTyXH M IiaBJIHHbi; MX B b i p e 3 b I B a j I M C QojIbUIOH TUjaTCJIbHüCTbK), CTapaHCb HO BO3M0JKH0CTII Tonnée nepe/jaTb CXOJJCTBO. TeMaTiiHecKMe B b i p e 3 K i i ; ; e j i a j i M r j i a B H b i M o5pa30M M y j i i H M H b i , 3 a n a c T y i o noJib3yacb m a o j i o H a M M . OTfleJibHbie T e M b i GbuiM xapaKTÊîpHbi jiMiJib jjjia y3xoro K p y r a HecKOJibKHX 6jni3jiejKaiJ4HX jjepeBeHb. KpoMe Bbipe30K B c r p e n a j i M C b B KypneBmMHe eine M flpyrne HacTeHHbie y K p a m e i - i n a : SanTbi (MJIJI. 56, 57). w iiayHKM. B MCTopiiii pa3BMTMa KypneBCKHX B b i p e 3 0 K nepBoe MecTO 3 a H M M a e T 3HaHeHiie MX cpyHKi^iiM B fleKopar^MH M 3 5 b l , a T a K J K e M300peTaTejIbHOCTb M HaXO/XHMBOCTb MHflMBHAyaJIbHblX Xy/IOJKHMIl. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. d u ż e g o formatu, o k o ł o 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k , 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty m a t e r i a ł ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y , około 100 str. druku, k i l k a n a ś c i e Cena 10 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 20 zł, roczna — 40 zł. ilustracji. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , około 130 str. druku, liczne p r z y k ł a d y Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. Wszystkie czasopisma meracie. nabywać można regularnie jedynie nutowe. w prenu­ W A R U N K I PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ SZTUKI LUDOWEJ" P r e n u m e r a t ę na kraj p r z y j m u j ą u r z ę d y pocztowe, listonosze oraz O d ­ działy i Delegatury „ R u c h u " . Można r ó w n i e ż d o k o n y w a ć w p ł a t na konto P K O N r 1-6-100020 — Centrala K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w „ R u c h " Warszawa, u l . W r o ­ nia 23. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są do 15 dnia miesiąca p o p r z e d z a j ą c e g o okres prenumeraty. Cena prenumeraty: półrocznie zł 36, rocznie zł 72. P r e n u m e r a t ę na z a g r a n i c ę , k t ó r a jest o 40'%> droższa — przyjmuje Biuro Kolportażu Wydawnictw Zagranicznych „ R u c h " Warszawa, ul. W r o n i a 23, tel. 2 0 - 4 6 - 8 8 , konto P K O Nr 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze n u m e r ó w zdezaktualizowanych m o ż n a n a b y w a ć w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m Prasy Archiwalnej „ R u c h " , Warszawa, u l . Srebrna 12, konto P K O N r 114-6-700041 V I I O / M Warszawa. A k t u a l n e numery czasopism I n s t y t u t u Sztuki P A N posiada Rozpowszechniania W y d a w n i c t w Naukowych P A N w P a ł a c u i Nauki w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury S t o ł e c z n e Z a k ł a d y G r a f i c z n e . Z. 2. w - w a , P o d c h o r ą ż y c h 39. z a m . 446/64. Pap. i l u s t r . k l . I I I , 120 g A l + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 220 g . B l . N a k ł a d 1300 egz. Z-94. W k ł a d k i o f f s e t o w e i o k ł a d k ę w y k o n a ł a d r u k a r n i a Z N A K — W a r s z a w a , F o k s a l 11. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/3662bf58d427a41bd335b182d832348c.pdf 91534f6aadbef76e852262e8ac485f7f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4789 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4446 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.4; s. 233-234 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F O QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE A R T INSTITUTE No 4 OF L K THE POLISH YEAR BOOK X V I I I A ACADEMY OF R T SCIENCES 1964 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES This issue is devoted to the situation i n research on Polish folk a r t i n the t w e n t y post-war years. R. Reinfuss, i n an article "Contemporary Research on Folk A r t and Prospects for the Near F u t u r e " gives a brief review of the research done i n the i n t e r - w a r period. A t that t i m e , there was no i n s t i t ­ u t i o n engaged i n research on a large scale, the material base was insufficient, the decisive factor being the i n d i v i d u a l interests of the authors, and this accounts for the fact that certain areas of this country and certain fields of folk art were elabor­ ated extensively and i n great detail w h i l e others were overlooked. The ethnographers dealt, above all, w i t h the eastern regions, several monographs on ornamentation appeared and art historians focussed t h e i r interest on wood-cuts, paintings and sculpture. The post-war period brought the setting u p of the State Institute for Research on Folk A r t i n 1946, w h i c h was later taken over by the A r t Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Under the guidance of Professor Reinfuss, research was undertaken a l l over the country. I t is envisaged that this w o r k w i l l be completed about 1970. Museums and universities (Warsaw, Cracow, Poznari, Wroclaw, Lublin, Torun) have enlivened their scientific and publishing activity. A t present, the inventories being made i n various localities by the Folk A r t Laboratory of the A r t Institute alone have covered t w o thirds of the whole area of the country (see map p. 191) a n d comprise 63,000 items and 32,000 photographs. A l l this has created a material base w h i c h can be used for m a k i n g detailed elabo­ rations and later monographs and synthetic works. Closer ties have been established with other disciplines, such as history and archeology, the a i m being to reconstruct and give a picture of the deve­ lopment of folk art. Most of these works appear i n "Polish Folk A r t " . There is only one popular-synthetic item, namely: R. Reinfuss, J. Swiderski, Folk A r t i n Poland, Cracow 1960. The most important articles and books in various fields are critically reviewed b y the authors of further articles. They are: W. K a l i n o w s k i , Research on R u r a l B u i l d i n g K . Piwocki, Research on Sculpture and Painting K . Pietkiewicz, Research on Paper-Cuts and Painted Ornamentation A. Kutrzeba-Pojnarowa, Research on Regional Costumes and Fabrics E. F r y ś - P i e t r a s z k o w a , Research on Pottery J. Olędzki, Remarks A b o u t Research on Blacksmithery and Carving i n Poland. I n comparison w i t h the pre-war period, relatively less interest is n o w being shown i n handicrafts and ornamentation techniques. On the other hand, a lot of attention is being p a i d to sculpture and the most comprehensive elaborations on a national scale have been prepared on wood-cuts (pre-war publications of Ł a z a r s k i , Skoczylas and, particularly, P i w o c k i — see p. 205 i t e m 2—5, 7—9), on paper-cuts, (p. 209 i t e m 1—19), pottery (p. 223 i t e m 1—58), regional costumes (p. 219 item 24—64 — p a r t i c u l a r l y the Atlas of Regional Costumes, w h i c h appears regul­ arly), on folk toys (work by T. Seweryn), on furniture making (particularly folk coffers, p . 229 i t e m 1, 2, 8—11) a n d on folk b u i l d i n g (p. 192—200). Studies of folk painting are concentrated on analysis of historical relics, their iconographie o r i g i n and of archive materials concerning handicraft guilds. Special attention is devoted to the w o r k of i n d i v ­ i d u a l artists, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n fields where an i m p o r t ­ ant role is played by the artist's o w n inventiveness, thus i n sculpture a n d paper-cuts. Most of the art­ icles on these disciplines are published i n "Polish Folk A r t " . As regards the various regions of the country, f u l l monographic w o r k s have already been w r i t t e n on the folk culture of the Wielkopolska (Poznań) region, Silesia ( i n p r i n t ) and the K u r p i e region. Works are being prepared on the K u j a w y region, Pomorze G d a ń s k i e and the Rzeszów region. A lot of material has been collected concerning the Podhale region and the voivodships of Łódź, Kielce and Lublin. The second part of the issue brings pen-portraits of outstanding contemporary folk artists. �n O J l b C K O E KBAPTAJIbHBIH 3KyPHAJI H A P O f l H O E M37JABAEMBIH MHCTHTyTOM MCKyCCTBA AKAflEMHtt H A y K rofl JNTa 4 H C K Y C C T B O M3/J;AHIIH nOJIBCKOH 1964 XVIII PE3I0ME B BbmycKe flaerca oueHa nccceflOBaHMHM B 0 6 jiacTH n o J i B C K o r o n a p o f l H o r o MCKyccTBa a a MCTeKmee flBaflLtaTujienie. B CTarbe CcmpeMeHHbie MCCJieflOBaHMH HapoflHoro MCKyccTBa M MX 6jiw»caiiuiiie nepcneKTMBbi P . P e i ł H c p y o c K p a n c o xapaKTepn3MpyeT McejieflOBaHMa, n p o o o f l j i B i i M i e c H B MestBoeHHBiM nepnofl. B TO BpeMH He Gbijio ynpejKfleHMH, 3aHMMaBiiieroca wocjiefflOBaHUHMM B mnpoKOM MaciiiTaBe, He 6buio TaiUKe Hafljieacameii MaTepwajibHOM 6a3ti; TBKMM o 6 p a 3 0 M o c e 3aBWcejio OT MHffMBMflyajibHoro nHTepeca aBTopos, noflpo&HO H0CJieflOBaBUIMX OAHM pailOHbl CTpaHbl, M ooBepuieHHO npeHeCperaa flpyrMMH. BHHMaHwe 3THorpad>OB w i a B HWM o f i p a a o M npuBjieKaJiM BocTOHHbie p a i ł o H b i . BWJIO onySjiMKOBaHO HecKOJibKO MOHorpacpi™, nocBaiueHHbix npwKnaflHOMy MCKyccTBy. HcKyccTBOBeflbi oco6eHHO MHTepecoBajiMCb rpaBiopoft Ha flepeBe, jKWBomicbio, CKyjibnTypoił. IlOCJie BTOPOM MMPOBOM BOMHbl, B 1946 T. 6bIJI OTKpbrr r o c y f l a p c T B e H H b u ł MHCTłrryT no MccjieflOBaHMio HapoAHoro TBopnecTBa, KOTopbiń 3 a T e M nepeHaji M H C T i r r y T M c K y c c T B IIoJibCKOfł AKaflesiMM H a y K . Ilofl pyKOBOflCTBOM npocjpeccopa PeMHCpycca cTajiM BCCTHCb WCCJieflOBaHMH nO BCeił TeppUTOpUM CTpaHbL 3aBepmeHMe MCCJieflOBaTeJibCKMX pa6or npeflycMaTpwBaerca npuMepHO B 1970 r. HayHHO-M3flaTejib€Kaa fleaTejibHocTb My3eeB M. yHMBepcuTeTOB ( B a p m a s a , K p a KOB, Oo3HaHb, BpoiiJiaB, JIHJÓJIKH, TopyHb) TaKHte 3HaHHTejibH0 pacuiMpnjiacb. B HacToamee B p e M a OrflejieHwe HapązrHoro TBop^ecTBa XyflOJKecTBeHHoro H H CTMTyTa irpoBOflMT MHBeHTapn3au,MK>, K o r o p a a OXBaTbmaer #Be T p e r i ł p c e i ł TeppMTopMM crpaHbi (CM. K a p Tiiiići Ha CTp. 191). ' B HacToamee apeiia HacHWTbiBaeTca yace 63.000 MHBeHTapHbIX p03łmHM M 32.000 CpOTOCHMMKOB. 3TO co3flaer MaTepwajibHyio 6a3y Ha ocHOBe KOTOPOM MOJKHO npoBOflHTb flOTajibHbio MccjieflOBaHMa fljia flajibHeMiinoc MOHorpacpMM M CMHTeniHecioix Tpy^OB. 3 H a 'IMTejIbHO yKpenMJiaCb CBH3Ł C pOflCTBeHHbIMM #WClłunjiMHaiMiM — MCTopHefi, apxeojiorneM — B u,ejiax oToopajKeHMa npou,eoca pa3BMTna HapoAHoro TBopHecrBa. r 'i Pe3yjibTaTbi MccjieflOBaHMM n y 6 j i m c y i O T c a rjiaBHbiM oSpasoM H a CTpaHMuax s c y p n a n a „ P o l s k a S z t u k a L u ­ dowa". EflHHCTBeHHbiM n o K a n o n y j i a p H O - C K H T e m H e c KMM Tpy^OM BBJiaeTca K H M r a P . PeiiHCpycca M K ) . CBMflepcKoro „ H a p o f l H o e TBopnecTBo B I l o j i b i i i e " ( K p a i c o s 1960 r.). BajKHeHLUwe flejIbHblM CTaTbw M KHMTM, nocBameHHbie OT- BOnpOCaM H a p O f l H O r O T B O p n e C T B a KpMTMHeCKM oocyac^aiOTca c^eflyiomMMM asropaMu: B. KajiMHOBCHM — MccjieflOBaHMa B o6jiacni flepeBeH- Kc. IIMBOUKIÍ K. I l e T K e B M i C K o r o CTpoKTejibCTBa; C K y j i b r r r y p a M HCMBonwcb; — Bbipe3KM M3 SyMaiM u uBeroaa paspucoBKa; — A. KyTineÓaIIoiłHapoBa E. ^pbicb- — Oflescfla u T K an H J IleTpaiuKOBa H. OjieHfl3KM — ToHMapnoe peMecjio; — XyflOHcecTBeHHaa ROBKa n pe3b6a. IIo c p a B H e H M K ) c flOBoeHHbiM nepwoftOM MHTepec K xyfloacecTBeHHbiM peMecjiaM M TexHMKe c e í í H a c 3HaHWTejIbHO yTWeHbUTHJICa, HO 3aTO MHOrO BHUMaHHH y ^ e j i a e r c a CKynbType, a B o5merocyflapcTBeHHOM MacuiTaSe cpaBHMTejibHO Haii5ojiee noflpo6HO n3yHeHbi flepeBaHHaa r p a B w p a (flOBoeHHbie n y ć j i M K a u m i JIa3ap- CKoro, CKOHMJiaca M ocoSenao IIuBouKoro — cp.c. 205 no3. 2—5, 7—9), BbipeaKw H3 ^yMarK (c. 209 no3. 1—19), roHHapcTBo (c. 223 no3. 1—58), HapoflHbie KocTioMbi (c. 219 no3. 24—64) — B ocofienHocTO cucTeMaTMHecKM M3flaBaeMbrił ATJiac HapoflHbix HOCTIOMOB), HapoflHwe MrpyuiKH (TpyAw T. CeeepuHa), MeSeab (B ocoSeHHocrM cyHflyKM c. 229 H03. 1, 2, 8—11) M HapoflHoe CTpon- TejibCTBO (c. 192—198). B HacToamee Bpeina HccjieflOBaHMa HapoflHoñ JKMBOIIHCH cocpeflOTOneHbi H a a H a j i n 3 e naMaTHMKOB C T a PMHbl, MX MKOHOrpaCpIlHeCKMX MCTOHHMKOB, a p X M B H b l X MaTepMajioB, K a c a i o m i i x c a peMecjieHHbix uexoB. Oco6oe BHMMaHMe y f l e j i a e i c a TBopnecTBy oTflejibHbix xyflOJKHMKOB, B nepByio onepe^b npeflCTaBHTejiefi T e x o r p a c j i e i ł MCKyccTBa, r ^ e Sojibiuyio pojib MrpaeT T B o p n e c K a a cbairraaMa, cjieflOBaTejibHO B CKyjibType (pe3b6e) M Bbipe3Kax. BojibiHMHCTBO CTaTeíi H a o r y TeMy n e n a i a j í acypnaji „Poiska Satuka Ludowa". Ha ceroflHHuiHMM fleiu» ooflroTOBJieHbi y a t e noflpoSHbie MOHorpacpMM, nocBameHHbie HapoflHoü K y j i b T y p e BejiMKonojibCKoro p a w o H a , C5MJie3MM (HaxoffMTca B nenarM), KypneBiuMHbi. r o T O B a r c a K nenaTM MOHOrpacpMM o K y a a B a x , r^aHbCKOM HoMopbe, X e m o B C K O ü 3eMJie. CodpaHo TaKsce MHoro MaTepMajioB, KacaiomMXc a Hoflrajiba, JIofl3HHCKOro, Kejieuicoro M JIIOSJTMHCKOnO BOeBOffiCTB. Bo BTopoił nacTM HacToaiuero H O M e p a noMemęHbi noprpeTbi Bbi^aiomMXca poflHoro TBopnecTBa. coBpeMeHHbix MacrepoB e a - � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/3f642fd1f32edbf05b11b6b293d2229e.pdf d76ffc0773d122e1fe910d358d279330 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4802 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4458 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.1; s.65-67 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text p O L I S H F O L K A R T Q U A R T E R L Y P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E A R T I N S T I T U T E OF T H E P O L I S H A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES Mo. 1 Y E A R BOOK X I X Vera Hasalowa — T H E Ż Y W I E C GROUP A N D PICTURES P A I N T E D O N G L A S S F R O M T H E M O ­ R A V I A N - C Z E C H BORDER C O U N T R Y The article discusses pictures painted o n glass about which Jozef G r a b o w s k i w r o t e i n the periodical " A r k a ­ dy" i n 1939, decribing them as t h e Ż y w i e c group. A f t e r examining a v e r y large number o f pictures of this type (blue) i n the museums of Czech Silesia (Opava, Ostrava, F r y d e k - M i s t e k , Frenstat and others) the authoress of the present article came to the conclu­ sion that they were connected w i t h two other groups, very similar i n character (pastel and coloured, m u l t i ­ coloured), and points to the p r o b a b i l i t y o f most of the pictures i n question coming f r o m one and the same workshop, w h i c h she assumes was i n a w e l l - k n o w n centre of pilgrimages, that is, a place i n w h i c h there was trade i n devotional objects and pictures, namely the t o w n of Frydek (on the border M o r a v i a and the Cieszyn region). This is testified by the v e r y large number o f pictures that are k n o w n to have come f r o m Frydek and v i c i n i t y and the fact that people remember the workshop there and i t is referred to i n literature on the subject (Cernohorsky, V y d r a , Boucek). The authoress goes on to show that the workshop, which i n all p r o b a b i l i t y existed t i l l the end of the 19th century, perhaps even longer, was founded at the meeting point o f three regions where painting on glass was practiced: the Silesian, M o r a v i a n and Slovak regions. The authoress makes a v e r y detailed study of the M o ­ r a v i a n region, of w h i c h l i t t l e is k n o w n so far, p o i n t ­ ing to the numerous connections between the products of the workshop i n F r y d e k and the paintings on glass done i n the M o r a v i a n region i n the middle of the 19th century, p a r t i c u l a r l y some of the paintings done by artists of the M o r a v i a n region. The Ż y w i e c group is a collection of typical Frydek paintings of the blue group, b r o u g h t to the villages i n the v i c i n i t y of Ż y w i e c by pilgrims from F r y d e k by wandering pedlars who took their wares f r o m house to house. So it is pretty certain that the paintings on glass f o u n d i n the villages near Ż y w i e c came from t w o sources — from Frydek and f r o m an u n k n o w n workshop that was somewhere on the t e r r i t o r i t y of today's Poland and w h i c h was o n l y local is scope and was m a r k e d for its folk character. Aleksander Jackowski - CONTEMPORARY F O L K A R T REMARKS FOLLOWING THE LÓDŻ E X H I B I T I O N I n the contemporary village there are various kinds of creative art existing side by side. 1. art based on the t r a d i t i o n a l patterns of folk culture, destined f o r the artist's o w n use i n his own m i l i e u , t h a t is, art f u l l y corresponding t o the' usual definition of folk a r t ; 2. art based on the t r a d i t i o n a l patterns of folk culture, destined f o r customers outside the village m i l i e u ( „ e x p o r t " to the towns), that is w o r k having ever weaker links w i t h the village milieu and sometimes contrary to its likings. 3. art corresponding to the present taste i n r u r a l and suburban milieus and destined for those milieus, that is, art of the k i n d mentioned i n point 1. created i n conditions where folk culture is losing its specific character, i n a situation where the artistic tastes of the m i l i e u are s t i l l the same, but are being influenced by the i n f i l t r a t i o n of patterns from other milieus, from the suburban areas of towns (so-called ,,feast-day ort"). A p a r t from these kinds of art, there are also others i n the r u r a l areas that cannot be placed i n the categories of folk art, for instance, the w o r k of the „ p r i m i t i v e s " , that of children and of amateur artists, that is, a l l the kinds of art that represent either extremely i n d i v i d u a l artistic work, or w o r k where the artists copy accepted patterns, keeping to the 1965 various artistic conventions prevailing i n the various milieus. Out of a l l these different kinds of art to be .t'ound in the countryside today, the art based on the t r a d i ­ tional patterns (point 1) is becoming ever less popular i n the r u r a l milieu, w h i c h fact is causing its gradual disappearance, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n fields where i t cannot compete w i t h industrial goods, for instance — smithery, furniture making, clothing, etc. Weaving still remains a v e r y levely field o f folk art. The village people s t i l l make various kinds of decorations and flowers from coloured tissue paper for their own use and also „ p i s a n k i " (painted eggs for Easter) and, to some extend, pottery too. A l l the other folk art products are today destined for the urban customer The existing forms of care over folk art are, i t is true, checking the process of its disappearance, but a definite artistic regression is evident i n a l l fields of folk art, which cannot be attributed t o the fact t h a t the best folk artists are ageing and dying and not to the lack of new young artists w h o are just as talented, but to the fact that the folk artist of today does not produce his w o r k for his own milieu. The mentality, consciousness and artistic vision of the contemporary man is different. Tradition, w h i c h formerly provided permanent foundations for folk art, has not such a strong influence toaay, even on the artists who consciously base their w o r k on i t . This is conducive to the development of individual searchings and calls for more personal inventiveness on the part of the artist. B u t the development of i n d i v i d u a l i t y is not always accompanied by artistic value. The self-taught artist, w h o does not usually have much idea of art, becomes rather helpless i f he tries to depart from tradition and depend on his own ideas. The situation is a specific one as regards carving, w h i c h has always been less dependent on the artistic traditions of the milieu. I n this field of art, the factor of i n d i v i d u a l inventiveness has always played the biggest role and today too, i t is decisive i n producing the best folk carvings. The number of carvers is growing and the artistic level of their w o r k has improved d u r i n g the last dozen or so years, w h i c h is, to some extent, due to the mass purchases of these works by C P L i A (Folk A r t Industry Cooperative) and the competitions and e x h i b i ­ tions organized by this folk art cooperative. I n the present situation, w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l folk art getting less popular in the r u r a l communities and the cosequent reduced demand for it, the problem of caring for this art is extremely important as an essential condition making the production of folk products possible. The institutions taking care of folk art (CPLiA. the Ministry of Culture and A r t , the museums) are taking the place of w h a t formerly shaped this art, namely, the traditions o f a given m i l i e u , and are thus guaranteeing the maintenance of a high artistic level and also a market for folk art products. This assistance has, i t is true, maintained and even re-activated some t r a d i t i o n a l techniques, but i t is not able to check the regressive process taking place i n folk art. But the decline of this traditional folk art is not synonymous w i t h the liquidation o i the specific art of the villages and suburbs (see point 3). This art is aestheti­ cally separate from contemporary professional art. but it does show some links w i t h the former ..feast-day art". Although i t cannot compate w i t h the former f o l k a r t from the artistic point of view, i t is not altogether deprived of aesthetic values. Maria Przeździccka CRACOW — EXHIBITION OF ICONS I N Discussing the e x h i b i t i o n of 15th—19th century icons from the M a ł o p o l s k a region, the authoress of the pre­ sent article draws attention to the great variety and specific i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f these paintings due both to the fact that they were produced i n an area constituting 65 �the m e e t i n g place o f East and West, and to the process of the L a t i n i s a t i o n o f rites and the influence o f the ioons p r o d u c e d b y t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g S ą c z g r o u p . T h e v a r i e t y o f tendencies and trends depended o n the education and talents o f the painter, the patterns he f o l l o w e d , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e c l e r g y a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d f o r m s . I t also d e p e n d e d o n t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h e i c o n p a i n t i n g . T h e e x h i b i t i o n also shows v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f o l k icons, even pictures o n b a n n e r s a n d crosses c a r r i e d i n p r o c e s s i o n s . Speaking about the instructions o f the clergy and the t r a d i t i o ­ n a l l y accepted f o r m s , the authoress d r a w s attention to t h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s n o t u s u a l l y a l l o w e d t o i n t r o ­ duce Gothic o r n a m e n t a t i o n i n t o t h e O r t h o d o x churches, the accepted f o r m s being Renaissance and baroque. I n 1970, i t w a s o f f i c i a l l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e i c o n o s t a s i s was not e s s e n t i a l i n t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h . I f i t w a s p l a c e d t h e r e , i t h a d to c o n f o r m t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n , i n w h i c h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i c o n o g r a p h i e a r t f o l l o w e d a set, formal schema. T h i s makes i t rather difficult to establish the dates o f some icons. The destination o f the icons i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r cha­ r a c t e r and a r t i s t i c range. T h e iconostasis, being the most p r o m i n e n t l y displayed, had to meet the highest r e q u i r e m e n t s . A n d i t is h e r e t h a t w e see t h e s t r o n g e s t and longest maintenance of the iconographie and f o r ­ mal r i g o u r s e s t a b l i s h e d at o n e t i m e f o r t h e E a s t g r n C h u r c h . I n scenes f r o m t h e l i v e s o f s a i n t s , t h e a r t i s t s had more freedom i n i n t r o d u c i n g new elements. The icon painters of the M a ł o p o l s k a r e g i o n i n the 16th—18th centuries were m o s t l y t o w n s f o l k o f P o l i s h or Russian origin, more rarely they were monks o f Basilian friars. T h e m a i n centres o f icon p a i n t i n g w e r e : Rybotycze, Przemyśl, Jaworów, Żółkiew and the monastery at Poczajów. The painters w h o w o r k e d f o r the church either collaborated w i t h guilds or got their orders f r o m monasteries o r l a y clergy o n the p r i n c i p l e o f family ties. T h e r e is a l a c k o f d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e S ą c z icon painters, b u t there are m a n y arguments, and examples of t h e i r a c t i v i t y , t e s t i f y i n g to the fact that this g r o u p d i d exist. I n t h e i r paintings the h a b i t of following a great variety of patterns makes it d i f f i c u l t to establish the date w h e n t h e y w e r e p r o ­ duced. I n considering the S ą c z group, the authoress o f t h e a r t i c l e says t h a t t h i s g r o u p w a s f o r m e d b y l a y artists w h o were not o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y l i n k e d w i t h m o ­ nasteries o f the clergy of the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , and t h a t these painters started to take patterns f r o m the art o f the O r t h o d o x and L a t i n churches o f various periods earlier than the painters working for the O r t h o d o x c h u r c h , a n d used t h e s e p a t t e r n s m o r e e x ­ tensively. A n a l y s i n g t h e f o r m a l s o l u t i o n s a p p l i e d , she p o i n t s t o the great v a r i e t y o f influences o n f o l k icon p a i n t i n g , Latin a m o n g others, the i n f l u e n c e of c o n t e m p o r a r y devotional pictures and Russian metal ornaments. To s u m up, the authoress states once again t h a t i t is d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h t h e c h r o n o l o g y a n d w o r k m a n ­ ship o f the icon paintings, f o r the same painters p r o ­ duced pictures destined for various purposes and therefore had a d i f f e r e n t approach i n d i f f e r e n t icons towards the t r a d i t i o n a l elements b o r o w e d f r o m Russo- B y z a n t i n e a r t , L a t i n a r t a n d P o l i s h f o l k a r t . (12—16). Anna Dobrzańska-Pawlicka — PAINTING ON COTTAGE WALLS I N THE VILLAGE OF SAMOKLĘSKI, JASŁO DISTRICT T h e authoress begins w i t h some general remarks on the custom of p a i n t i n g the w a l l s o f cottages w i t h c a l c i m i n e o r l i m e , a n d t h e n deals i n d e t a i l w i t h the p a i n t e d o r n a m e n t a t i o n to be f o u n d o n t h e w a l l s o f the cottages i n the v i l l a g e o f S a m o k l ę s k a . T h e o r n a ­ m e n t a t i o n is u s u a l l y o f a m i x e d k i n d ; t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e c o t t a g e is g e n e r a l l y p a i n t e d w i t h w h i t e l i m e , sometimes w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f a b l u e tint, and some­ t i m e s i t is w h i t e w a s h e d i n stripes. S o m e of the cottages have t h e i r f r o n t w a l l s p a i n t e d w h i t e a l l o v e r and the gable p a r t i n stripes o r perhaps i n a d o t t e d p a t t e r n . The doors are decorated w i t h patterns p a i n t e d i n l i m e . M o s t o f these p a t t e r n s are s t y l i z e d p l a n t f o r m s . Geo­ m e t r i c a l patterns are m o r e r a r e l y m e t w i t h , f o r i n ­ stance, patterns o f d o t s , l i n e s , etc. T h e composition of the o r n a m e n t a t i o n depends on t h e s h a p e a n d size o f t h e d o o r w h i c h is t o be p a i n t e d . As r e g a r d s the l o n g - s h a p e d f a r m b u i l d i n g s i n the village o f S a m o k l ę s k a , t h e d o m i n a n t n o t e is large vertical patterns on the doors f o r m i n g a compact compositional w h o l e w i t h the w h i t e w a s h e d f r a m e w o r k . T h e p a i n t i n g t o be f o u n d o n t h e c o t t a g e s i n S a m o ­ k l ę s k a has n o t a n y l o n g t r a d i t i o n s . T h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c u s t o m can b e t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e y e a r 1910. T h e p a i n t i n g is done e x c l u s i v e l y b y w o m e n , u s u a l l y before E a s t e r . T h e r e a r c s i m i l a r w a l l p a i n t i n g s also i n s e v e r a l villages i n the neighbourhood of S a m o k l ę s k a . T h e p a i n t i n g is p u r e l y o r n a m e n t a l a n d has n o o t h e r f u n c t i o n , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e s i g n o f t h e cross. Maria Gutkowska-Rychlewska — PATTERNED S A S H E S O F T H E 1 7 t h A N D 18th C E N T U R Y NET Net sashes w e r e c o m m o n l y w o r n b y t h e P o l i s h b u r g h e r s a n d n o b i l i t y i n the 17th a n d the f i r s t half o f t h e 18th c e n t u r y . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f net lace w h i c h was used i n t h e i r m a k i n g l a s t e d t i l l t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 20th century i n f o l k art. S i l k p a t t e r n e d sashes, a b o u t t h r e e m e t r e s l o n g a n d a b o u t 50 c m w i d e , m o s t l y r e d a n d c r i m s o n , s o m e t i m e s adorned w i t h gold o r silver, w e r e tied o n over zupan a n d kontusz (over -coat w o r n b y P o l i s h nobles). Cheaper woolen or s e m i - s i l k sashes w e r e w o r n already in t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y c h e a p e r sashes o f t h i s k i n d w e r e also w o r n by the peasants l i v i n g near C r a c o w . Barbara Kołodziejska — E X H I B I T I O N OF PAPER-CUTS IN THE REGIONAL MUSEUM LONA GÓRA ŁOWICZ AT ZIE­ This e x h i b i t i o n was a display of the w o r k o f Zofia F o k s , b o r n i n 1902 n e a r Ł o w i c z , w h e r e she l i v e d u n t i l 1945. S h e has n o w b e e n l i v i n g i n t h e v i l l a g e o f C h w a l i n , S u l e c h ó w d i s t r i c t , n e a r Z i e l o n a G ó r a , f o r 19 y e a r s . Z o f i a Foks l e a r n t to m a k e paper-cuts f r o m her m o t h e r a n d u p t i l l a b o u t 1930 m a d e a l o t o f t h e m f o r h e r s e l f a n d h e r n e i g h b o u r s . B u t a f t e r t h a t she s t o p p e d m a k i n g t h e m . T h e 107 p a p e r - c u t s o n v i e w a t t h e p r e s e n t e x ­ h i b i t i o n a r e t h e f i r s t she has d o n e since she g a v e i t u p t h i r t y y e a r s ago. S h e uses t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Ł o w i c z p a t t e r n s : p a p e r - c u t s d e p i c t i n g v a r i o u s subjects, and i n stars. the f o r m of bands and A n a l y s i n g the v a r i o u s f o r m s o f the paper-cuts, the a u t h o r e s s p o i n t s to t h e i r d i f f e r e n t n e s s f r o m t h e t r a ­ d i t i o n a l Ł o w i c z p a p e r - c u t s , d u e to h e r h a v i n g l e f t h e r the n a t i v e m i l i e u , f o r o n e t h i n g , a n d also because m a d e t h e p a p e r - c u t s n o t as a d e c o r a t i o n f o r h e r h o m e , but as m u s e u m exhibits. Ewa F r y ś - P i e t r a s z k o w a — T H E 21st A N D 22nd VITY CRIB COMPETITIONS I N CRACOW NATI­ D i s c u s s i n g t h e l a s t t w o C r i b C o m p e t i t i o n s i n 1963 a n d 1964, t h e a u t h o r e s s f i n d s t h a t t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e e v e n t has g r o w n t r e m e n d o u s l y o f l a t e . T h e m a x i ­ mum n u m b e r o f c r i b - m a k e r s entering for the first 15 c o m p e t i t i o n s w a s 40, w h i l e i n t h e l a s t o n e , 100 c r i b - m a k e r s s e n t i n 113 N a t i v i t y C r i b s . A s regards the e v o l u t i o n o f the f o r m o f the cribs, t h e t r e n d is t o w a r d s m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n , i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e u s e d as s o u v e n i r s a n d g i f t s . F o r t h e same reasons, the p u p p e t theatre f o r m is b e c o m i n g o b s o l e t e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is a g r o w i n g t e n ­ dency towards jeweller's precision and a w e a l t h of o r n a m e n t a t i o n . The c r i b - m a k e r s , i n seeking new f o r m s , are i n f l u e n c e d b y c u r r e n t events and celebrations. T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e 600th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e J a g i e l l o n i a n U n i v e r s i t y c o u l d b e seen i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a r c h i ­ tectural elements f r o m the historical U n i v e r s i t y b u i l d ­ ings a n d the i n c l u s i o n of h i s t o r i c a l personalities i n the cribs. . �n O / l b C KBAPTAJIbHblH K O E HCyPHAJI H A M3flABAEMbIÎÎ JA 1 • P O f l H O E MHCTMTyTOM HCKyCCTBA TOA M3ÄAHMH X I X Bepa XacajioBa — JKMBEU.KAH I W ü n A M KAPTMHbl HA CTEKJIE HA TPAHMHE MOPABHM M HEXMM TeneHHo M C K Y C C T B O nOJIbCKOH AKAflEMMM HAYK 1965 r j i o x H y T T e o T p a c j i M M C K y c c T B a , K O T o p w e He Bbi- Aep>KMBaK)T KOHKypeHMMM C npOMblLUJieHHblMM TOBapaMM, HanpMMep, Ky3HeHHoe peMecjio, BbinojiHeHMe x y f l o j K e c T - CTaTfaH nocBHmeHa K a p T M H a M Ha C T e K J i e , o Koxopbix B e H H o í i MeSejiM, o ^ e j K A b i M T.n. 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J te ao SH 2 X y S 3 . a te œ te S eu a s s r ft £- S K eu a > X ^ H a ft o et > _ eu _ o . eu cu 2 c eua eu ce co CO CQet u a co ce a « ? S n C0 CO ÛJ S o te H aiD ^ co eu eu Moa» S 3 co g 'S s s eg u co sta g J a a a a o 3 S s e H ft a co vo ft « X. es Jft e u S OU « el ft . O eu S M :S « Z. „ co « S 5»co¡jio o s • ä 5 es a CO ID •o S-M " o ft§ X co co s 2= co S X o co es a », S S e u a aa s eu C0 i-f etM ^^ ft eu j5 a te co es c o g o cu M n eu co a S O S E s* s -9" co eo a co œ a �< cu S D N W a, o < N U I—I w. I H « r-í •S Ö CP s§ 5 u eö Ul o G >> •a au co 6 .* 3 .2 o n3 fcfl o c ¿a O U Q "S P => I . '-fi < ra <s > r A wS ^ 0 o i tn OJ si P s ° va Q 3 •-) i-i la ? a, o i -n Ä U •i-i-*--- i: a c- S O < N * 4*^ÍM> .4iis44ígg$ � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/c5ba633d25dc8fdbae22965ae5d1f3f4.pdf be8663953e113ae35c6f4cfe0a113b88 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4811 ros. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4466 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.2 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Resume Language A language of the resource ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S QUARTERLY PUBLISHED H F O BY THE ART INSTITUTE No. 2 YEAR BOOK L K OF THE POLISH XIX A ACADEMY R T O F SCIENCES 1963 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES A n n a K u t r z e b a - P o j n a r o w a - J A N STANISŁAW BYSTRON AS A HISTORIAN A N D THEORETICIAN OF FOLK CULTURE T h e a r t i c l e contains a r e v i e w o f t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e l a t e J . S. Bystroń ( b o r n 20.Л.1892, d i e d 18.XI.1964) t h e o u s t a n d i n g sociologist a n d e t h n o g r a p h e r w h o d i e d last y e a r . H i s w o r k w a s a c o n t i n u a t i o n i n P o l a n d o f ideas t h a t a r c a n e a r a p p r o a c h t o t h e F r e n c h school of E D u r k h e i m a n d M . Mausse, u n d e r w h o m h e studied. Bystroń' s a c i t i v i t y w a s c o n f i n e d t o t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n the t w o w o r l d w a r s , b u t n o w interest is again being shown i n his works, w h i c h w h e n they w e r e w r i t t e n , o f t e n o n t h e basis o f i n c o m p l e t e m a t e r i a l s , w e r e a n attempt at a systematic presentation of f o l k culture, a n a t t e m p t a t a synthetic approach to t h e subject. T h e a u t h o r e s s discusses i n d e t a i l t h e w o r k s b y Bystroń »n folklore, graphic folk a r t , t h e theory of f o l k culture a n d t h e ethnic division of Poland. A n n a K u n c z y ń s k a - I r a c k a - FOLK PAINTERS FROM GIDEL T h i s a r t i c l e is a m o n o g r a p h i c essay on h e h i s t o r y o f a c e n t r e o f f o l k p a i n t i n g , u n k n o w n so f a r , i n a f a m o u s place of pilgrimages. G i d e l , a v i l l a g e n e a r Częstochowa, o n o n e o f t h e m a i n p i l g r i m r o u t e s , w a s f a m e d as a m i r a c l e v i l l a g e as f r o m t h e 17th c e n t u r y . T h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e biggest place of p i l g r i m a g e s i n P o l a n d , a n d at t h e same t i m e t h e biggest centre of f o l k painting,, w a s t h e reason f o r t h e q u i c k develop­ m e n t o f G i d e l b o t h as a p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e s a n d as a centre of religious paintings destined f o r t h e p i l g r i m s . T h e f i g u r e o f t h e M a d o n n a a n d C h i l d , w h i c h , as l e g e n d has i t , w a s t u r n e d u p b y t h e p l o u g h o f a p o o r p e a s a n t Czeczek i n h i s f i e l d , is t h e o b j e c t o f c u l t i n G i d e l . B u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G i d e l as a p l a c e o f p i l g r i ­ mages o n l y b e g a n i n t h e 17th c e n t u r y , a f t e r t h e D o m i n i ­ can F a t h e r s h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t h e r e i n 1615. T h e D o m i n i ­ can F a t h e r s b u i l t a c h u r c h i n t h e v i l l a g e (1632-1644) and a monastery too, a n d published t w o books on t h e h i s t o r y of G i d e l a n d t h e m i r a c l e s of t h e M a d o n n a (1636—1642) A t the same t i m e t h e m o n a s t e r y d i s t r i b u t e d graphic pictures of the M a d o n n a Tnd the first votive K r e s f o r h e r w o r s h i p - a m o n u m e n t a l cycle о m r t u r r a u l u s t r a t m g t h e h i s t o r y o f th™ c u T o f t h e G i d e ^ I v H d o n n a w a s a f s o n a n t e d D u r i n f i t h e 18th c e n t u r y G i d e b e c a m e Tven m o r e ^ o o n u l a i and t h e m o n a s t e r y ' c o n t i n u e d Tts a c t i v e ot Z t i n ; t h r m S u rf the to become general i n f o l k a r t . I t . s h o w s t h e m n a c u l o u s f i n d i n g o f t h e M a d o n n a c o m b i n e d w i t h a scene o i h e ! adoration b y the Dominican patrons. The Gidel Monastery itself was never a b i g artistic c e n t r e , I n t h e a r c h i v e s o f t h e M o n a s t e r y , o n l y the n a m e s of t h e D o m i n i c a n F a t h e r s w h o were p a i n t e r s h a v e b e e n recorded. T h e role o f t h e Monastery w a s r a t h e r confined to d i s t r i b u t i n g p i c t u r e s of t h e M a d o n n a o r p o i n t i n g p i c t u r e s f r o m r e a d y m a d e p l a t e s t h a t were o r d e r e d f r o m other monasteries or f r o m l a y artists. The f o l k painters w o r k i n g i n Gidel came there f r o m n e a r b y Częstochowa. T h e r e are r e c o r d s o f t h i s , b e g i n n i n g f r o m t h e t u r n o f t h e 1 8 t h a n d 1 9 t h c o n t u r i e s . B u t i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e same a p p l i e s t o t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , t o o . We k n o w t h e names o f three Gidel P a i n t e r s J a n S ł o w i k o w s k i a n d F r a n c i s z e k K o ś m i d r o w i c z a n d h i s son Józef. T h e f i r s t t w o w e r e m a s t e r s o f t h e p a i n t e r s ' " g u i l d i n Częstochowa a n d c a m e t o G i d e l s t r a i g h t f r o m t h e r e Józef K o ś m i d r o w i c z t h e l a s t o f t h e G i d e l p a i n t e r s l e f t t h e v i l l a g e as a m i d d l e - a g e d m a n a n d w a n d e r e d r o u n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s l o o k i n g f o r Deoolc t o b u v h i s Pictures, f o r a t t h e e n d o f the19?h century^ f o l k p a i n t i n g s were being more and[more'generally^ousted b y o ^ ^ i n t ^ T h e authoress analyses t h e relics of f o l k p a i n t i n g associated w i t h G i d e l i n t h r e e g r o u p s : 1. 95 v o t i v e p i c t u r e s f r o m t h e c h a p e l i n G i d e l . T h e s e pictures, p a i n t e d o n boards, w e r e done a t t h e same t i m e , most p r o b a b l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . They w e r e perhaps t h e pictures of J a n Słowikowski ( a b o u t 1774-1841). T h e i c o n o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f these pictures, generally typical of European votive paintings as f r o m t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , as w e l l as t h e a r c h a i c costumes of t h e Dersons i n t h e p i c t u r e s i n d i c a ' e t h a t t h e a r t i s t Allowed m u c n older patterns' probably modelling his olctuTes o n o l d d a m a g e d v o t i v e p a f n t i n g s t h a t i t h a d been d e c k e d t o ™ r t ^ Z r I L ^ s № the u c t u r e s are a v e r y near approach t ^ f o l k p a i n t i n g 2. P i c t u r e s o f t h e G i d e ) M a d o n n a f o u n d o u t s i d e G i d e l i n l o c a l i t i e s a l m o s t a l l o v e r P o l a n d i n t h e areas c o v e r e d b y p i l g r i m a g e s t o Częstochowa a n d G i d e l . A s r e g a r d s iconographic features a n d composition they are very s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r , t h e i r f o r m a l f e a t u r e s a l l o w i n g of t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e g r o u p o f p a i n t i n g s p r o d u c e d b y Częstochowa a r t i s t s i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a l a c k o f d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r o r i g i n w e c a n n o t state w h e t h e r - t h e y w e r e p a i n t e d i n G i d e l o r Częstochowa as t h e f o r m a l f e a t u r e s " o f t h e p a m t i n g s Ьу a r t i s t s f r o m t h e s e twei centres a r e very ImuŁ 3. P i c t u r e s p r e s e r v e d i n G i d e l a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g villages. Some o f t h e m are said b y t h e local i n h a b i t a n t s t o be t h e w o r k o f Józef K o ś m i d r o w i c z (1827-1917) a n d s o m e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g ones c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o F r a n ­ c i s z e k K o ś m i d r o w i c z (1799 — a b o u t 1850). T h e s e p i c t u r e s are o f t h e M a d o n n a C h r i s t a n d t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s a i n t s , a n d as r e g a r d s b o t h i c o n o g r a p h i c a n d f o r m a l f e a t u r e s a r e a k i n t o t h e Częstochowa p a i n t i n g s . B u t i t is possible t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e creative i n d i ­ v i d u a l i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p a i n t e r s . T h e w o r k o f Józef Kośmidrowicz, w h o i m i t a t e d t h e G i d e l f o l k painter:;, w a s u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e least i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m t h e a r t i s t i c p o i n t of view. B u t t h e analysis of t h e f o l k paintings f r o m G i d e l , w h i c h w a s o n l y o n e o f t h e " c h i p s o f f t h e Często­ c h o w a b l o c k ' gives a D r e l i m i n a r v idea o f t h e differences n t h e f o l k p a i n t i n g s o f t h a t g r o u p b o t h as r e g a r d s t h e i r f o r m a l a n d 1 о т п ™ р Ы с features: 1 M a r i a P r z e ż d z i e c k a - „PISANKI" I N T H E BIA­ ŁYSTOK REGION The w a x technique of m a k i n g „pisanki" (painted Easter eggs), p r a c t i c e d i n P o l a n d s i n c e t h e 1 0 t h c e n t u r y (excavations i n Opole a n d W r o c l a w ^ h a s been preserved i n p a r t i c u l a r a m o n g t h e people of t h e Białystok V o i v o d s h i p , w h o a r e g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d as r e g a r d s n a t i o n a l i t y , r e l i g i o n a n d social m i l i e u . W i t h t h e l o c a l Byelorussians i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e n u m e r o u s „pisanki" m a d e b y t h e m a r e associated w i t h p a s t o r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l r i t e s ( g o i n g to t h e rye-field), household magic ( t h r o w i n g „pisanki" o v e r t h e house o r k e e p i n g t h e m i n t h e h o m e ) , a n d w i t h the c u l t of t h e dead ( p l a c i n g „pisanki" o n graves). T h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f b r e a k i n g eggs o n E a s t e r S u n d a y i s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f i n t h e m a g i c r o l e o f t h e egg as a n " o v u m r u p t u m " . T h e c u s t o m o f k n o c k i n g eggs t o g e t h e r , w h i c h i s s t i l l p r a c t i c e d t o d a y is r e g a r d e d as a g a m e n o w , a s i s t h e c u s t o m o f r o l l i n g Easter eggs. T h e c u s t o m o f p r e s e n t i n g E a s t e r eggs ( p i s a n k i ) t o r e l a t i o n s a n d friends a n d groups going f r o m door t o door w i t h E a s t e r g r e e t i n g s , t h e l a t t e r c u s t o m b e i n g k n o w n &s „ p o w o l o c z e b n y m " i n t h e southern p a r t of t h e voivodship a n d as .,po A l l e l u j i " i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t , h a s s u r v i v e d a n d is even g e t t i n g m o r e w i d e s p r e a d . T h e „ p i s a n k i " a r e m a d e m o s t l y b y w o m e n . T h e y use t h e w a x t e c h n i q u e , p u t t i n g t h e w a x o n t h e egg i n a r a t h e r primitive w a y w i t h a matchstick or t w i g (in the central part of t h e voivodship, w h i c h has n o t a n y p a r t i c u l a r traditions i n m a k i n g „pisanki"), o r using a p i n a n d s o m e t i m e s a n a i l ( i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t , m o r e o i less along t h e banks of t h e R i v e r Biebrza) o r u s i n g a s m a l l f u n n e l k n o w n as „ s t u c h a w k a " ( t h e d i s t r i c t s o f B i e l s k 12Э �P o d l a s k i a n d S i e m i a t y c z e ) . T h e s c r a p i n g t e c h n i q u e is o n l y f o u n d extensively i n the locality of Łomża a n d t h a t of maceration occurs sporadically. - because of a n u m b e r of s m a l l l o c a l i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n of t h e b u i l d i n g s , w h i c h w e r e d u e to t h e fact t h a t the village w a s a place of c h u r c h festivals. The authors make a detailed analysis of the construc­ t i o n a l e l e m e n t s of t h e cottages, t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e i r i n t e r i o r l a y o u t a n d t h e shape of t h e b u i l d i n g s . T h e l i v i n g quarters of the h i s t o r i c a l cottages i n K a l ­ w a r i a P a c l a w s k a a r e of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n k n o w n i n P o l a n d as „ p r z y s ł u p o w a " , t h a t is, w i t h e x t e r n a l w o o d e n p i l l a r s s u p p o r t i n g t h e róof ( f i g . 8 - 1 3 ) . T h i s t y p e o f b u i l d i n g is f o u n d b o t h i n Rzeszów V o i v o d s h i p a n d i n other regions, b u t t h e r e a r e n o l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d oi b u i l d i n g . The outhouse p a r t of the b u i l d i n g , u n d e r the s a m e r o o f as t h e l i v i n g q u a r t e r s , is of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n k n o w n i n P o l a n d as „ s ł u p o w a " , t h a t is, a s k e l e t o n f r a m e of wooden pillars to w h i c h the w a l l beams or boards are attached f r o m the inside. U p t i l l t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , t h e l a y o u t of t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e cottages w a s a l w a y s t h e s a m e , t h a t i s , t h e r o o m s o p e n i n g o u t f r o m one c o r r i d o r r u n n i n g t h e w h o l e l e n g t h o f t h e b u i l d i n g . O n one s i d e t h e r e w e r e t h e l i v i n g rooms, a n d o n the other, the outhouses (fig. 8-10), the l a t t e r r a r e l y h a d c o m m u n i c a t i n g doors a n d were usually entered f r o m outside. T h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b e r of these r o o m s a n d t h e i r l a r g e size d i d n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e s i z e of t h e f a r m or household, b u t was due to t h e fact t h a t they w e r e u s e d as l o d g i n g s f o r p i l g r i m s T h e l a c k of c o m m u n i c a t i n g doors i n t h e i n t e r i o r w a s to p r e v e n t stealing. T h e v i l l a g e of K a l w a r i a P a c l a w s k a i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f P r z e m y s ł i s a m o n g t h e m o s t f a m o u s p l a c e s of p i l g r i ­ m a g e s in P o l a n d . I t b e c a m e p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . A l l along the m a i n street a n d r o u n d the m a r k e t s q u a r e , t h e cottages h a d a r c a d e s a t t h e f r o n t ( f i g . 1 4 - 1 7 ) , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t b u i l t o n t o t h e cottages i n t h e side streets. D u r i n g t h e c h u r c h f e s t i v a l s t h e p e d l a r s p u t u p t h e i r s t a l l s u n d e r t h e s e arcades. T h e considerable increase i n the n u m b e r of p i l g r i ­ mages at t h a t t i m e b r o u g h t p r o s p e r i t y b o t h to the K a l w a r i a c h u r c h a n d to the speedily developing village. J a n u s z O p t o ł o w i c z - JAKUB POTTER FROM BIAŁA PODLASKA T h e b u i l d i n g s p u t u p i n t h e y e a r s 1860-1880 to t h i s v e r y day account f o r a considerable percentage of a l l the b u i l d i n g s i n t h e v i l l a g e . T h e r e is also a l a r g e g r o u p o f houses b u i l t i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , w h i c h f o l l o w the 19th century i n t e r i o r l a y o u t a n d shape of b u i l d i n g . T h i s s e t t l e m e n t of r e l i c s of f o l k s t y l e b u i l d i n g m a r k e d f o r t h e i r e x c e p t i o n a l c o h e s i o n is, in t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s of a r t i c l e , v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g , a b o v e a l l , T h e a r t i c l e c o n t a i n s r e m i n i s c e n c e s of t h e l a t e J a k u b C z e c z e l e w s k i , a p o t t e r , w h o d i e d o n A u g u s t 2 n d , 1963 ( b o r n 1907). H e l e a r n t t h e t r a d e of p o t t e r f r o m h i s l a t h e r , a n d i n his w o r k c o n t i n u e d the t r a d i t i o n s of t h e local f o l k p o t t e r y , b o t h as r e g a r d s f o r m a n d o r n a m e n t a t i o n . I n the post-war years he p a r t i c i p a t e d i n n u m e r o u s competitions a n d e x h i b i t i o n s of f o l k a r t , w i n n i n g m a n y prizes. T h e „pisanki" m a d e by a p p l y i n g w a x w i t h a p i n have s t a r - l i k e motifs of r e g u l a r or a s y m m e t r i c a l and f l o w i n g a r r a n g e m e n t of l i n e s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n g r e a t l y e n r i c h e d i n recent years, {plate I). The w a x „pisanki" usually have a w h i t e p a t t e r n on a b l a c k b a c k g r o u n d . T h e y are r a r e l y f o u n d i n other c o l o u r s o r i n m a n y c o l o u r s ( p e r h a p s t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g L i t h u a n i a n v i l l a g e s ) . A s r e g a r d s t h e „pisan­ k i " made w i t h the s t u c h a w k a " , t h e oldest a n d most g e n e r a l t y p e o f d e c o r a t i o n is t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f c e n t r a l m o t i f s (Dlate' 41 p l a c e d a t t h e c r o s s i n g D o i n t o f t w o l i n e s r u n n i n g f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m of t h e egg a n d one l i n e r u n n i n g r o u n d i t t r a n s v e r s e l y - like t h e s p e c i ­ mens f o u n d i n the 11th century excavations i n Opole a n d also in? s ^ h n e n s w i d e l y tounT^ Poland The newest and Z s " i n t e r e s L nisanki" regards o r n a ! т т Г а п а colour a r e t h o s f m a d e d u r i n g t h e Ы " t e n v e a r s от so i n t h P l o r a l i t v of M t S s i a Natural d y e a r e used t o c o l o u r t h e I T e s (for i n s t a n c e onion s k i n s a ? d r r harkł Г п Г > 1 ! X t d « t r д 3 T h p o r n T m L ^ t t n on rhP c r a n e d a n d m ™ ed a s W пЛГ,™^™? n™t»lf™ ^ tome " w " t h e formTot a ^ s L d e d d r a w i n g Jadwiga and A n a t o l i usz Czerepinscy COTTAGES I N K A L W A R I A PACŁAWSKA CZECZELEWSKI, �П О Л Ь С К О Е КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ № ЖУРНАЛ Н А Р О Д Н О Е ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ И С К У С С Т В О ИСКУССТВА ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК ГОД И З Д А Н И Я X I X 2 1965 РЕЗЮМЕ Анна К у т ш е б а - П о й н а р о в а — ЯН СТАНИС­ Л А В В ЫС Т Р О Н Ь — ИСТОРИК И ТЕОРЕТИК НА­ РОДНОЙ К У Л Ь Т У Р Ы В с т а т ь е о б с у ж д а е т с я научная д е я т е л ь н о с т ь н е д а в ­ н о скончавшегося известного с о ц и о л о г а и этнографа Я . С. Б ы с т р о н я (20.Х.1892 — 18.XI.1964). Б ы с т р о н ь б ы л п о с л е д о в а т е л е м идей, б л и з к и х ф р а н ц у з с к о й школе Е. Д ю р к х е й м а и М . Мосса, у ч е н и к о м к о т о р о г о он б ы л . Деятельность Быстроня проходила в межвоенный период, н о сейчас его т р у д ы вновь в ы з ы в а ю т б о л ь ш о й интерес. Х о т я в с в о и х и с с л е д о в а н и я х Б ы с т р о н ь н е всегда р а с п о л а г а л п о л н ы м и м а т е р и а л а м и , т о все ж е его т р у д ы я в л я ю т с я п о п ы т к о й систематизирования я в л е н и й н а ­ р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы , п о п ы т к о й создания н а у ч н о г о с и н ­ теза. А в т о р н а с т о я щ е й статьи б о л е е подробно р а с с м а т р и ­ вает т е т р у д ы Б ы с т р о н я , к о т о р ы е п о с в я щ е н ы ф о л ь ­ к л о р у , н а р о д н о й г р а ф и к е , теории народной к у л ь т у р ы и этническому делению П о л ь ш и . Анна К у н ч и н ь с к а - И р а ц к а МАСТЕРА НАРОДНОЙ ЖИВОПИСИ - ГИДЛЕВСКИЕ Статья является монографическим очерком по истории н е и с с л е д о в а н н о г о д о с и х п о р центра н а р о д ­ ной ж и в о п и с и , к о т о р ы й н а х о д и т с я в известной п а л о м ­ н и ч е с к о й местности. Г и д л е , деревня, р а с п о л о ж е н н а я б л и з Ченстоховы, при одном из г л а в н ы х п а л о м н и ч е с к и х трактоя, у ж е в X V I I в е к е п р о с л ы л а к а к ч у д о д е й с т в е н н а я местность. Близкость известнейшего в П о л ь ш е паломничес­ к о г о центра и в то ж е в р е м я к р у п н е й ш е г о центра н а ­ родной ж и в о п и с и и м е л а р е ш а ю щ е е з н а ч е н и е д л я б ы с ­ трого роста Г и д л с й , к о т о р ы е в свою о ч е р е д ь с т а л и местом п а л о м н и ч е с т в а и ц е н т р о м р е л и г и о з н о й ж и в о ­ писи, п р е д н а з н а ч е н н о й д л я странников. П р е д м е т о м к у л ь т а в Г и д л я х я в л я е т с я статуэтка Мадонны с младенцем, которую по преданию выкопал в п о л е б е д н ы й к р е с т ь я н и н Чечко (1516 г.). Г и д л е с т а л и п р и о б р е т а т ь известность к а к место п о ломничества л и ш ь в X V I I в. в связи с призв анием в 1915 г. д о м и н и к а н ц е в . В т е ч е н и е н е с к о л ь к и х д е с я т ­ ков л е т д о м и н и к а н ц ы п о с т р о и л и к о с т е л (1632—1644) и м о н а с т ы р ь , а т а к ж е и з д а л и д в е книги, о п и с ы в а ю щ и е историю Г и д л е й и чудеса, т з о р и м ы е Б о г о м а т е р ь ю (1636—1642). В то время м о н а с т ы р ь р а с п р о с т р а н я л у ж е г р а ф и ч е с к и е о б р а з к и Богоматери, п о я в и л и с ь т а к ж е первые образки — дарственные приношения Мадон­ н е — и б ы л создан м о н у м е н т а л ь н ы й ц и к л картин, и л л ю с т р и р у ю щ и х историю к у л ь т а Г и д е л ь с к о й Б о г о ­ матери. В X V I I I веке популярность Гидлей неуклонно росла и монастырь ш и р о к о с л а в и л ч у д о т в о р н у ю Б о г о м а т е р ь , распространяя и з д а н н ы е о ней книги, в п е р в у ю ж е очередь г р а ф и ч е с к и е образки. И м е н н о в то в р е м я б ы л окончательно установлен иконографический тип изо­ бражения М а д о н н ы , п р и н я т ы й затем в народном искусстве: это сцена, п о в е с т в у ю щ а я о ч у д е с н о й н а ­ х о д к е статуэтки Богоматери, сцена, и з о б р а ж а ю щ а я п о ­ к л о н е н и е доминиканцев. Г и д е л ь с к и й м о н а с т ы р ь никогда н е п р и н а д л е ж а л к б о л е е к р у п н ы м х у д о ж е с т в е н н ы м центрам. В а р х и ­ в а х м о н а с т ы р я с о х р а н и л и с ь л и ш ь е д и н и ч н ы е имена х у д о ж н и к о в и з ч и с л а г и д е л ь с к и х доминиканцев. Р о л ь м о н а с т ы р я с в о д и л а с ь скорее к распространению и з о ­ бражений Богоматери либо к печатанию образков с г о т о в ы х п л а с т и н о к . Э т и пластинка з а к а з ы в а л и с ь в д р у г и х м о н а с т ы р я х л и б о у светских х у д о ж н и к о в Народные живописцы, работавшие в Гидлях, пере­ б р а л и с ь туда из соседней Ченстоховы. Об этом говорят с о х р а н и в ш и е с я д о к у м е н т ы конца XVIII и начала X I X вв. О д н а к о в п о л н е в о з м о ж н о , ч т о а н а л о г и ч н о е я в л е н и е н а б л ю д а л о с ь у ж е в X V I I I в. И з в е с т н ы имена т р е х г и д е л ь с к и х ж и в о п и с ц е в ; Я н а С л о в и к о в с к о г о , Ф р а н ц и ш к а К о с ь м и д р о в и ч а и его сына Ю з е ф а . Два п е р в ы х родом из Ченстоховы б ы л и мас­ терами ч е н с т о х о в с к о г о ц е х а ж и в о п и с ц е в . Ю з е ф К о с ь мидрович, п о с л е д н и й из г и д е л ь с к и х ж и в о п и с ц е в , п о ­ к и н у л в среднем в о з р а с т е с в о й п о с е л о к и странствуя п о окрестным деревням, и с к а л в о з м о ж н о с т и п р о д а в а т ь свои картины, т а к - к а к к к о н ц у X I X в. п р о и з в е д е н и я народной ж и в о п и с и все б о л е е вытеснялись олео­ графией. А в т о р с т а т ь и д е л и т г и д е л ь с к и е п а м я т н и к и народной ж и в о п и с и на три г р у п п ы . 1) 95 образков — д а р с т в е н н ы х ( в о т и в н ы х ) п р и н о ­ шении — предположительно из Гидельской ча­ совни. Э т и л у о о ч н ы е и з о б р а ж е н и я в о з н и к л и о д ­ новременно, в н а ч а л е X I X в. В о з м о ж н о , ч т о а в т о ­ ром и х б ы л Я н С л о в и к о в с к и (ок. 1774--1641). Иконографическая композиция этих иконок при­ н а д л е ж и т , н а ч и н а я с X V I века, к о б щ е м у т и п у европейской ж и в о п и с и , д а р с т в е н н ы х п р и н о ш е н и й . Архаизация одежды представленных лиц также свидетельствует о том, ч т о живописец, п о л ь з о ­ в а л с я с т а р и н н ы м и образцами. В о з м о ж н о это б ы л и с т е р т ы е иконки, к о т о р ы е р е ш е н о з а м е н и т ь новыми. П о своему х а р а к т е р у э т и и к о н к и о ч е н ь б л и з к и народной живописи. 2) И з о б р а ж е н и я Г и д е л ь с к о й Богоматери, н а й д е н н ы е за п р е д е л а м и Г и д л е й и р а с с е я н н ы е ч у т ь л и н е на территории всей П о л ь ш и п о местам с л е д о ­ в а н и я п а л о м н и к о в в Ченстохову и Г и д л е . Что касается и к о н о г р а ф и и и к о м п о з и ц и и , то они очень с х о ж и и п о своим ф о р м а л ь н ы м ч е р т а м могут б ы т ь п р и ч и с л е н ы к ч е н с т о х о в е к о й ж и в о ­ писи. В с е ж е ввиду отсутствия д а н н ы х о и х происхождении, н е л ь з я установить создавались л и они в Г и д л я х и л и ж е в Ченстохове, так-как ф о р м а л ь н а я связь м е ж д у этими д в у м я центрами очень близка. 3) К а р т и н ы , с о х р а н и в ш и е с я на т е р р и т о р и и Г и д л е й и о к р е с т н ы х д е р е в е н ь , Часть и з н и х п о местной традиции связана с и м е н е м Ю з е ф а К о с ь м и д р о ­ вича (1827—1917), н е к о т о р ы е м о ж н о приписать Ф р а н ц и ш к у К о с ь м и д р о в и ч у (1799— ок. 1650). Э т и и з о б р а ж е н и я Богоматери, Х р и с т а и н а и б о л е е п о ­ п у л я р н ы х святых, как ф о р м а л ь н о , т а к и по и к о ­ нографическому типу верны традициям ченсто­ ховекой живописи. Т е м не менее можно отличить творческое л и ц о о т д е л ь н ы х х у д о ж н и к о в - ж и в о ­ писцев. К с о ж а л е н и ю в х у д о ж е с т в е н н о м с м ы с л е творчество Ю з е ф а К о с ь м и д р о в и ч а п р е д с т а в л я е т собой м а л о интересное я в л е н и е . А н а л и з на­ родной живописи Г и д л е й , которая б ы л а л и ш ь одним из „ о с к о л к о в " ч е н с т о х о в с к о г о центра н а ­ родного творчества, дает, по м н е н и ю автора статьи, в о з м о ж н о с т ь о р и е н т и р о в о ч н о р а з о б р а т ь с я в о х в а т е н а р о д н о г о творчества этого х у д о ж е с т ­ венного к р у г а к а к в ф о р м а л ь н о м , т а к и и к о н о ­ графическом отношении. Мария САНКИ П ш е з ь д з е ц к а — БЕЛОСТКСКИЕ ПИ­ Т е х н и к а в о с к о в ы х писанок, известная в П о л ь ш е у ж е в X веке (археологические находки в Ополе и В р о ц л а в е ) , особенно с о х р а н и л а с ь в Б е л о с т о к с к о м воеводстве, н а с е л е н и е к о т о р о г о д о в о л ь н о р а з н о о б р а з н о к а к в н а ц и о н а л ь н о м , так и с о ц и а л ь н о м о т н о ш е н и я х , а т а к ж е р о з н и т с я вероисповеданием, Особенно среди м е с т н ы х б е л о р у с о в и с п о л н е н и е п и ­ санок тесно связано с п а с т у ш е с к и м и и с е л ь к о х о з я й ственпыми обрядами ( х о ж д е н и е „ в р о ж ь " ) , д о м а ш н е й магией (перебрасывание ч е р е з постройки, х р а н е н и е в д о м е ) , а т а к ж е с к у л ь т о м у м е р ш и х ( в о з л о ж е н и е на м о г и л ы ) . О м а г и ч е с к о й р о л и яйца к а к „ o v u m r u p t u m " 131 �с в и д е т е л ь с т в у е т Запрещение разбивать яйца в первый день Пасхи. Сохранился также обычай у д а р я т ь с я яйцами, к о т о р ы й т е п е р ь п р е в р а т и л с я скорее Б и г р у ; точно т а к ж е к а к катание яиц. К р о м е того повсюду сохранился обычай дарить писанки родственникам и з н а к о м ы м , а т а к ж е обычай х о д и т ь группами с п о з ­ д р а в л е н и я м и . В ю ж н о й части воеводства этот обычай н а з ы в а е т с я „по в о л о ч е б н ы м " , а в северной — „по Аллилуя". П и с а н к и г л а в н ы м образом д е л а ю т ж е н щ и н ы . О н и применяют в о с к о в у ю т е х н и к у , примитивным образом н а к л а д ы в а я воск с п о м о щ ь ю п а л о ч к и и л и спички (в ц е н т р а л ь н о й части воеводства, где традиция писа­ нок очень с л а б о развита), и л и с п о м о щ ь ю б у л а в к и иногда гвоздя (на севере, п р и б л и з и т е л ь н о до реки Б е б ж а ) л и б о с п о м о щ ь ю н е б о л ь ш о й воронки, так наз. „ с т у х а в к и " ( п о в я т ы В е л ь с к П о д л я с к и и Семятичи), Т е х н и к а р ы т ь я ч а щ е всего встречается в окрестностях Л о м ж и , а гравировка применяется л и ш ь в ' е д и н и ч н ы х случаях. Писанки, п о к р ы в а е м ы е воском с п о м о щ ь ю б у л а в к и , у к р а ш а ю т с я з в е з д н ы м и р е г у л я р н ы м и и л и ассиметрич е с к и м и мотивами, к о т о р ы е в п о с л е д н е е время стали з н а ч и т е л ь н о р а з н о о б р а з н е е (табл. I ) . Эти писанки, как п р а в и л о , имеют б е л ы й у з о р на черном фоне. О т н о с и ­ т е л ь н о р е д к о встречаются писанки д р у г о г о цвета л и б о м н о г о ц в е т н ы е ( в о з м о ж н о здесь с к а з ы в а е т с я влияние соседних л и т о в с к и х д е р е в е н ь ) . Среди писанок, вы­ п о л н я е м ы х п ш помоггги с т у х а в к и " стаоейшим м п а и ft fi ТТРГ 1 ПИ П т О Г Т П и И Й П Н Ь Ш Tłl/Г ГГПМ ЯК П ЯГ-ТГЯ Т П Я ЛИТ [ Ш 1 Н - ное р асп ол о ж е ни е цент р а л ь н ы х мотавга > (табл и одного поперек Такие писанки б ы л и IV) иа найдены п р и р а с к о п к е F О п о л е ( X I В } И ВО МНОГИХ М&СТЯ.Х 3 1 пределами Польши. Н о в е й ш и м и самым интересным орнаментом и р а с ­ цветкой о т л и ч а ю т с я писанки, в ы п о л н я е м ы е у ж е с в ы ш е д е с я т и л е т в окрестностях Семятич (рис. 12). Д л я рас­ цветки у п о т р е б л я ю т с я естественные красители (на­ пример л у к о в и ч н а я ш е л у х а , о л ь х о в а я кора) и синтети­ ч е с к и е к р а с к и (краски д л я ш е р с т и и х о л с т а ) . О р н а ­ мент г р а в и р о в а н н ы х и т р а в л е н н ы х писанок н а п о м и ает орнамент в о с к о в ы х и л и ж е пытается н а т у р а л и ­ стически в ы т е н я т ь отображение. Я д в и г а и А н а т о л и й Черепиньские - КОМПЛЕКС ИЗБ В К А Л Ь В А Р И И ПАЦЛАВСКОЙ Д е р е в н я К а л ь в а р и я П а ц л а в с к а (ловят П ш э м ы с л ь ) п р и н а д л е ж и т к известнейшим местам паломничества в П о л ь ш е . О с о б у ю п о п у л я р н о с т ь деревня эта приобрела во второй п о л о в и н е X I X века. З н а ч и т е л ь н о у с и л и в ш и е с я тогда паломничества спо- собствовали росту зажиточности как к а л ь в а р и й с к о г о костела, так и деревни, которая быстро з а с т р а и в а л а с ь . Дома, в о з в е д е н н ы е в 1В60—1880 гг., по сей день составляют з н а ч и т е л ь н у ю часть всей д е р е в е н с к о й з а ­ стройки. З н а ч и т е л ь н у ю г р у п п у составляют дома, п о ­ строенные в первой четверти X X в., к о т о р ы е с о х р а ­ нили общую конструкцию и внутреннюю планировку построек X I X в. Этот и с к л ю ч и т е л ь н о гармонический к о м п л е к с п а ­ мятников народного зодчества, — п о м н е н и ю авторов статьи, — особенно интересен с в о е о б р а з н ы м и а р х и ­ т е к т у р н ы м и деталями, в ы з в а н н ы м и п а л о м н и ч е с к и м х а ­ рактером К а л ь в а р и и П а ц л а в с к о й . А в т о р ы подробно а н а л и з и р у ю т э л е м е н т ы к о н с т р у к ­ ции изб, э в о л ю ц и ю и х в н у т р е н н е г о расположения и в н е ш н е г о типа. С т а р и н н ы е постройки К а л ь в а р и и П а ц л а в с к о й имеют в ж и л о й части так наз. п р и с т о л б о в у ю к о н с т р у к ц и ю (рис. 8—13).' Этот тип строительства встречается как в Ж е ш о в с к о м воеводстве, так и в д р у г и х р а й о н а х , где имеется б о л ь ш о е количество подобных построек. В х о з я й с т в е н н о й части, которая н а х о д и т с я под одной к р ы ш е й с ж и л о й , — п р и м е н я л а с ь столбовая к о н с т р у к ­ ция. Д о второй мировой в о й н ы в н у т р е н н я я п л а н и р о в к а и з б ы б ы л а всегда одинаковой — однотрактной: п о одну сторону с е н е й н а х о д и л и с ь ж и л ы е п о м е щ е н и я , по д р у г у ю — х о з я й с т в е н н ы е (рис. 8—10). Эти п о с л е д н и е р е д к о и м е л и внутреннее с о о б щ е н и е и в х о д к ним б ы л о б ы ч н о извне. О т н о с и т е л ь н о б о л ь ш о е к о л и ч е с т в о т а к и х построек, д о в о л ь н о о б ш и р н ы х и п р о с т о р н ы х независимо от н у ж д д а н н о г о хозяйства, о б ъ я с н я е т с я тем, ч т о они с л у ж и л и н о ч л е г о м д л я п а л о м н и к о в . Отсутствие внутреннего сообщения имело ц е л ь ю предотвращение краж. В д о л ь главной у л и ц ы и вокруг центральной п л о ­ щади, и г р а в ш е й р о л ь р ы н к а с т р о и л и с ь дома с н а в е ­ сами (рис. 1 4 — 1 7 ) ; на б о к о в ы х у л и ц а х т а к и х домов н е ставили. В о время п р е с т о л ь н ы х праздников под н а ­ весами р а с п о л а г а л и с ь т о р г о в ц ы со своими товарами. Яиущ Оптолович — ЯКУБ ГОНЧАР ИЗ ВЯЛОЙ ПОДЛЯСКОЙ ЧЕЧЕЛЕВСКИ Статья п о с в я щ е н а памяти гончара Чечелевского, р о ж д е н н о г о в 1907 г. и скончавшегося 2 сентября 1963 г. Гончарному р е м е с л у Чечелевски обучался у с в о е г о отца. В своих работах он с л е д о в а л традициям местного народного гончарства, п р и д е р ж и в а я с ь т е х ж е ф о р м и у к р а ш е н и й при в ы д е л ы в а н и и посуды. В п о с л е в о е н н ы е г о д ы Чечелевски принимал участие в ряде конкурсов и в ы с т а в о к народного искусства и б ы л неоднократно награжден. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI wydawane P.P. PAN przez WYDAWNICTWA ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE BIULETYN H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 100 s t r . d u ż e g o f o r m a t u , o k o ł o 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 24 z l , p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 48 zł, r o c z n a — 96 zł. POLSKA SZTUKA LUDOWA, k w a r t a l n i k , 64 s t r . d u ż e g o f o r m a t u , b o g a t y m a t e r i a ł i l u s t r a c y j n y . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 170 s t r . d r u k u , 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — około 72 zł. K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y , o k o ł o 100 s t r . d r u k u , kilkanaście i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 10 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 20 zł, r o c z n a — 40 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , o k o ł o 130 s t r . d r u k u , l i c z n e p r z y k ł a d y C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. Wszystkie meracie. czasopisma nabywać WARUNKI „POLSKIEJ można regularnie jedynie w nutowe. prenu­ PRENUMERATY SZTUKI LUDOWEJ" P r e n u m e r a t ę n a k r a j p r z y j m u j ą urzędy p o c z t o w e , l i s t o n o s z e o r a z O d ­ działy i D e l e g a t u r y „ R u c h " . M o ż n a r ó w n i e ż d o k o n y w a ć w p ł a t n a k o n t o P K O N r 1-6-100020 ~ C e n t r a l a Kolportażu P r a s y i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch" Warszawa, u l . W r o ­ n i a 23. P r e n u m e r a t y p r z y j m o w a n e są d o 15 d n i a miesiąca poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty. C e n a p r e n u m e r a t y : półrocznie zł 36, r o c z n i e zł 72. P r e n u m e r a t ę n a zagranicę, która j e s t o 40% droższa — Biuro Kolportażu Wydawnictw Zagranicznych „Ruch" u l . W r o n i a 23, t e l . 20-46-88, k o n t o P K O N r 1-6-100024. przyjmuje Warszawa, SPRZEDAŻ E g z e m p l a r z e n u m e r ó w z d e z a k t u a l i z o w a n y c h można n a b y w a ć w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m P r a s y A r c h i w a l n e j „ R u c h " , W a r s z a w a , u l . S r e b r n a 12, k o n t o P K O N r 114-6-700041 V I I O/M W a r s z a w a . A k t u a l n e n u m e r y czasopism I n s t y t u t u S z t u k i P A N posiada R o z p o w s z e c h n i a n i a W y d a w n i c t w N a u k o w y c h P A N w Pałacu i N a u k i w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury Stołeczno Z a k ł a d y G r a f i c z n e . Z. 1. W - w a , Podchorążych 39. Z a m . 2ея'65. P a p . iius-tr, k l . I I I , 120 g Л1 - k a r t o n b i a t y k l . l i r . 220 g. B I . NakJacJ 1270 cgz. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/9ddd0b3cb8266238bad4dac5f2cad14f.pdf 0fc3e0b1d48d3b1e3ea603470594a9c1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4822 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4476 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1965 t.19, z.3; s.178-179 Language A language of the resource pol. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 1 H O K Q U A R T E R L Y P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E A R T I N S T I T U T E OF T H E P O L I S H A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES No. 3 YEAR BOOK X I X 1965 SUMMARY OF A R T I C L E S Giza Frenkel J E W I S H PAPER CUTS The article supplies material for an examination of m u t u a l influences between Polish and Jewish paper cuts, increasingly taken into account i n studies on the origins of Polish paper cuts. Jewish paper cuts were very widespread i n Poland, certain parts of Russia, Germany and probably Holland; certain varieties of them can be found i n Italy, countries of the Near East and N o r t h e r n Africa. The preserved material originates from the X l X t h and early X X t h centuries. F r o m earlier periods, only parchment cuts are s t i l l left. Jewish paper cuts have always performed a cult function. They are characterized by an abundance of forms and motives and almost always an introduction of w r i t i n g . Motives: the central position is occupied by the "menora" i.e. a seven-armed candlestick or a table w i t h the Decalogue. Above them a crown, eagle, or sometimes the shield of David can be found. A r o u n d them — animal motives, vegetal and geometrical orna­ ments. A n i m a l motives have a symbolical meaning, often connected w i t h the meaning of the inscription. A r c h i t e c t u r a l motives and the tree of life can also be found. The motives common i n paper cuts can also be found i n other w o r k s of Jewish folk art: i n metal, carvings and embroidery. Types of cuts: The most impressive form of Jewish' paper cuts is the "mizrach" — hanged on the eastern w a l l of houses and temples. M i z r a c h is characterized by its considerable size and rectangular shape. I t is made from w h i t e paper, painted and framed under glass. Other types include "szewuosl" and "rojzele", small cuts for decorating windows on Pentecost. They could be found only i n Eastern Europe, p a r t i c u l a r l y Poland and neighbouring territories. This type includes t w o forms: rectangular, w i t h typical Jewish motives, and circular — a rosette. A separate group consisted of cuts w i t h soldiers as the motive. A common type of paper cuts were the flags for Simchat-Tora, carried i n the parade behind the Tora. They were two-sided, made from colored paper and pasted onto a colorful background. Another type is represented by cuts used as charms, the so-called "Kimpetbrieflech", hung on 4 walls i n the delivery room to offset the evil power of the w i t c h L i l i t h . Other types of paper cuts included timetables for the period between Pascha and Szewuoth and cuts for decorating shacks and lanterns i l l u m i n a t i n g various festivities. The makers of paper cuts were always men: pupils and teachers of Jewish schools, sometimes older persons. The technique: the paper cut was made by first drawing the design on paper folded i n two, then i t was fastened to a board and cut out w i t h a sharp knife, the asymmetrical motives being cut out separately. I n the beginning of the X X t h century, Jewish paper cuts began to vanish and during the war whatever was left was almost completely destroyed. I n paper cuts from Africa and the Near East, t w o groups stand out. They are both called "menora", but the first group is a counterpart of the mizrach and the second includes smaller paper cuts used as charms. The motives are the same as i n European paper cuts but they have a specific oriental style. Origins: The origins of Jewish paper cuts should be sought for i n the Far East. The art of cutting, w h i c h probably derives from shadow acting, expanded its scope and spread out w i t h time through China, Java, Persia and T u r k e y to N o r t h Africa and from there i n the X V I I t h century to I t a l y and Europe. Jews i n the East must have therefore k n o w n the art of paper cutting already in very old times and preserved materials show the existence of Jewish paper cuts i n Europe i n the X V I I t h century. Jewish paper cuts therefore have old traditions, carried by Jews to different corners of the w o r l d and 178 everywhere ancient tradition was shaped i n accordance w i t h local customs and requirements. The question of influence between Jewish and Polish paper cuts can be considered only i n relation to the group of paper cuts posted on windows d u r i n g the Pentecostal period, since they were the only ones w h i c h the Polish population could k n o w . Some motives of this group of cuts l i k e the rosette, birds, certain vegetal and geometrical ornaments show a certain resemblance to Polish paper cuts. The possibility of influence is supported by reports that the f i i s t Polish paper cuts were made from w h i t e paper i.e. the same as Jewish ones, and also the i n i t i a l range of Polish paper cuts i n the X l X t h century corresponds to the range of Jewish paper cuts (Congressional Kingdom, the regions of L w ó w , Tarnopol and S t a n i s ł a w ó w ) . M i g r a n t Jewish craftmen and merchants could have served as m i d d l e ­ men i n the art of paper cutting. Marek CENTER Arpad Kowalski OF F O L K S C U L P T U R E THE SIERPC Sierpc county i n the Mazowsze region presently ranks among the most active centers of f o l k sculpture. Twelve sculptors w o r k there. The center was formed only i n recent years and the first sculptures by Rusz­ k o w s k i , S k i r z y ń s k i , D e r c z y ń s k i , W. K r a j e w s k i and D u ż y ń s k i appeared at exhibitions and competitions i n 1958, taking up the declining t r a d i t i o n of sculpting. Demand was decisive i n the formation and development of this center — p a r t i c u l a r l y interest expressed by C P L i A , competitions, exhibitions (also abroad i n B r o o k l y n and Santa Fe) and the creation of possibilities for selling sculptures at home and abroad. I n 1962, Ruszkowski's grandson — K u r o w s k i , W . K r a jewski's son — Jan as w e l l as H . Wierzchowski and later his brother M i r o s ł a w followed the example of their predecessors and tried their hand at sculpting. The number of sculptors steadily increased, but many of the less talented were eliminated, after failing to pass the selective screening set up by CPLiA, Neigh­ bouring residence, frequent contacts, common interests and j o i n t undertakings on bigger projects l i k e the altar (fig. ) or the m u l t i - f i g u r e historical composi­ tion "The K o ś c i u s z k o Insurrection" are factors w h i c h tend to consolidate the group. M u t u a l influence can be detected i n the characteristic features of a m a j o r i t y of sculptures from the center. These include: compact shaping of the block, a schematic approach to the figure, scarce ornamentation and an expressiveness of the face. A p a r t from the group of sculptors from Sierpc and Zawidz stands Helena S z c z y p a w k a - G o ł e b i o w s k a , whose p r i m i t i v e sculptures failed to gain the approval Df local authorities and the CPLiA. I n the author's opinion, her sculptures at least m e r i t the attention of the Ethnographic Museum i n Warsaw and are w o r t h y of separate discussion. Next, the author discusses the advantages and dis­ advantages of C P L i A patronage. The advantages include the v e r y fact of the center's creation, its development and the high salaries of the creators. The disadvantages — the danger of a transformation of the sculptures into mass production, advance suggestions on the themes and artistic shape of the works, a mercantile attitude resulting i n creative activity stemming not from need but f r o m orders. The successes of the artists from Sierpc have caused that they are respected i n their environment but there is no demand for their sculptures, they do not conform to the present esthetical tastes of r u r a l areas. Hence, a sort of a sculptor's vocation emerges, w i t h the sculptor w o r k i n g i n the village to meet city and export demands. The county authorities assist the artists, plans are being d r a w n for a regional museum i n Sierpc, a studio has been b u i l t for Ruszkowski and he has been awarded a scholarship. �J u l i u s z A. C h r o S c i c k i — BEADS, N I P P L E A N D GOLDFINCH (GOTHIC ART A N D F O L K BELIEFS) Problems of ideological content have come out considerably more sharply than the artistic f o r m i n the monograph on the p o r t r a i t of the Madonna from Dembe. The anonymous painter f r o m the middle of the X V t h century depicted the V i r g i n M a r y and the I n f a n t Jesus w i t h a necklace of beads, a nipple in hand and a goldfinch on a string. I n the l i g h t of H . Friedemann's studies on the role of the goldfinch in European devotional art, the Madonna f r o m Dembe appears to have a unique position. Unfortunately, this researcher omitted Polish painting and failed to deal i n adequate p r o p o r t i o n w i t h paintings f r o m Bohemia, M o r a v i a and Southern Germany. Another part of the article deals w i t h plastic presentation of the n i p p l e and discusses its symbolic meaning. The m a i n thesis resulting f r o m an analysis of the various elements of the painting is the presumption that the plate was donated because of the illness of a child of some s t i l l u n k n o w n donors. The i n d i v i d u a l motives: goldfinch, nipple and bead are discussed against the background of preserved examples of X I V — X V I I t h century sculpture and painting and confronted w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l folk beliefs and more recent l i t e r a r y texts f r o m the X V I t h and X V I I t h centuries. I t was attempted, in a l i m i t e d scope, to take into account folk beliefs in interpreting the ideological mean­ i n g of Gothic plate paintings. n O J l b C K O E KBAPTAJIbHblïï jVu 3 JKYPHAJI Anna Kunczyńska-Iracka F O L K FLOWERS (comments after hibition) ARTIFICIAL Warsaw ex­ A r t i f i c i a l flowers are produced i n almost every region of Poland and are among the most dynamically ex­ panding fields of contemporary folk art. They are m a i n l y used for decorating rooms. I n the areas of Częstochowa, Kielce and Cracow they are also used for decorating graves on A l l Saints Day. The flowers are them mainly for there are several and Siedlec D u ż y flowers for m a r k e t mostly made by women. They make themselves or for neighbours and large centers, such as K o z i e g ł o w y near C z ę s t o c h o w a , w h i c h produce sale. The materials most commonly used i n the production of flowers are colored tissue and paper. Flowers f r o m feathers are mostly produced i n the regions of C z ę ­ stochowa, Opoczno and K u r p i e , f r o m shavings around Częstochowa The most numerous and artistically most interesting flowers are produced in centers w i t h a strong t r a d i t i o n of folk decorative art, such as K u r p i e , the Ł o w i c z and Kielce regions. The exhibition of a r t i f i c i a l flowers held in Warsaw in January 1965 by C P L i A was the f i r s t of its k i n d and a great success. A l l the exhibits were sold to viewers. H A P O A H O E M3flABAEMbIÏÎ — the H C K Y C C T B O MHCTIÍTyTOM HCKYCCTBA FOfl M 3 f l A H M H X I X IIOJIbCKOlï AKAflEMMIf HAYK 1965 PE3IOME maaOpoHKCJib - EBPEÍÍCKAÍI „BblllHHAHKA" ÜKCiib pacnpocTpaneiibi Ghinu cbaaatKH H a CnMxa T -Topa, KOTOPŁ]C O Ó b F n i O HOCHJIM 3a C B H T K O M T 0 b I BO BpeMH npaSflHHHHblX UJCCTBHÍi. *JiajKKH 3 T H 6b!JIH flByP B -waTepuajibi n o nccjiOAOBaHHio nOJIbCKHMH II e B p e Ü C K H M H B b i p e 3 K 3 Mii M3 Syiiara, TaK H a 3 . BŁiuwnaHRaMW. 3 r a B3anM0CBH3Ł Bee l a m e n p w H H M a e T C f l b o BHiiMamie npn j i c c j i e f l O B a H í m craTŁe coopaHbi B3ailMOCBH3M MCJKfly r e H e s H c a n o j i b C K i i x BbnrwHaHOK. E e p e ü c K a H B H U H H a H K a t j b i j i a oie-Hb pacnpocTpaHena b n o m i n e , b HeKOTopbix p a i í o H a x P o c c h h , r e p i n a ™ u , n o B c e i î BepoHTHOCTH, b r o j i J i a i w i n . H e K O T o p b i e bi^m 9 T H X BbIO.IlHaHOK B C T p e H a i O T C H B Ü T a j I H H , B CTpaHaX BjiMJKHero B o c T O K a w ceBepHofl AobpKKH. CoxparoiBuiHÍícH Mareptiaji AaTiipyeTCH X I X b. h h h ' l a j i O M X X b . C 6ojiee paHHero n e p u o f l a o c r a j i H C b t o j i b k o nepraMeHTHŁie BbniHHaHKH. EBpeiicKiie BbiuHnaHKH scerfla B b i n o j n i H J i H K y j i b T O B b i e c p y H K u , H J i ; o h m o T J i H H a W T c a Sora-rcTBOM c p o p M m m o t h b o b h h o m t m Bcer^a conposojKflatOTca HaflnHcaMH. Moï-iiBbi: i^eiiTpajibHoe M e c r o 3 a H J i M a e x ,.MeHopa", T.e. ccMHCBeiiibin m a H A a n , j i h ô o cKpîijKajiw. Hafl h u m h m 3 0 6pajKe bi K o p o i i a linn o p e n , n H o r a — i h h t ftaBiifla. B o H f l K p y r — 3BepHHLie m o t u b ł i , pacTMTejifaHbiń jitiâo reoMeTP M H e C K H f i OpHQMeHT. 3 B e p n H b i e MOTHBbl IIMËEOT C H M B O J I H HecKoe 3HaneHHe h n a c x o c B a a a H M c coflepMcanneM HaflnwcH. B c T p e i a i o T C H T a K i K e apxnTeKTOHH<iecKiie mothbm H flPeBO JKH3HH, M o n - l B h l BblUHHaHOK BblCTyimFOT H B flpymx H3ACJIHHX CBpciicKoro HapoflHoro TBopiecTBa: G H 3 e j I H H X H3 MÊTajIJia, B p C 3 6 e M B B M U I H B K a X . i « n u BBiivHHaHOK: Cainow G o r a T o w cpopMoü e B p e í í c K o f i A H o T n M e m l f B , I n e T C n ^ T*' I, - M " 5 ° H 3 P j I b o a m X " O H K 0 T 0 P M Í * o 5 w H - PacKpauieHHbiw B ™ L»™îî?v v « ° -<< y° ,.POH e , »n p a s M e p o B . Mmii y K p a m a j i u oKOinibie creKJia b n p a a w H H K T p o H i p i . Onu HcrpenajiKCb t o j i b k o fłiłŁf r-.n r i f i n r > CTTTin n T i n T I T H T . . r i s*f\nO. TT i r u V rrnHuVJ ^ ' Hojlbine H COCeflHHX y M H a H K meB K T CJI n 3 e J I P j ! , B p 0 n O o c o 5 e H H O B p Bon w P MinHUHbix enpeHCKHX motm„ " „ 3 P° > - OTfle^bHyto r p y n n y n p e « dHjiHioT B b i q n n a ¡ i K n c m o t h b o m , H300pa«iaroLLfnM cojiflaT. H r J I w 3 e o e B a B H 3 f K l e e ! r l l C M 3 e T ( K CTopoHHHe K us imeTiioń 6yMarn, na hpkom cboHe. flpyrowy r u n y nptiHafljieataT B b n r H H a i i K M , w c n o j i H H winne pojib a i w y j i e T O B , t k H a s . „KmineT6pjicbjiex". Mx B e i u a n i i a 4 c T e n a x b KOMHHTe p o j K e H m i b i jym npefloX p a H C H H H OT H e i H C T O M CMJIŁI K O J I f l y H H H J Í H ^ M T . BcTpeHa3 H Jincb TaKíKe B b q i i H a H K H b BHAe T a 6 j r a i j , Ha K O f o p b i x b w C H H T b m a j i o c Ł B p e M H o t ITacxH flo U l e B y o T , ji H 6o b m u . h H3HKH y K p a u i M B a B U i M C L u a j i a u i w u . ™ ate t p o H a p w , k o t o pbie 3 a j K n r a j i H B 03HaMeH0BaHiie pa'3JinHHbix r o p x c e c T B . ABTOpaMM BblUHHaHOK SblJIH oSblKHOBeHHO MyKHHHhi: y M e H H K H M yHMTCJIH X C f l C p O B , MHOTfla n O J K H J I b i e JIKlflM. TexiiMKa HcnojiHeHun: BbiuwHaHKM flejiajua, pwcyn CHa^ajia y 3 o p n a b a b o c c j i o í k c h h o ü SyMare, Koropyro 3 a T e n npHKpenjiHJiu k a o c k c h Bbipe3MBajin ocTpbiM hojkom, npHieM a c c H M C x p H i e c K H e m o t h b ł i Bbipe3bmajincb otl Aejibiio. B Hanajie X X b. MCKyccTBo e B p e ü c K M X EbruwHaHOK a r . i o x j i o , a b o BpeüH b o m h w B e e c o x p a i i H B n i e e c a j\o3 CTOHHHe B b l U H H a H O K SblJIO nOHTM U e j I H K O M yHHHTOSKeHO. B BbmwHaHKax CeaepHoíi AcbpuKH m BjiwwHero B o c t o K a BbicrynaKiT ^ B e rpyniiw. 06e Ha3biBatoTcH „MeHOpa- MM", n o nepsan rpynna o T B e n a e r „ M n 3 p a x y " , a k o b t o p o m npnHafljieüíar noMeHbiue, Koropbre pOJIb TSJIMCMaHOB. MOTHBbl 3 T H X BblUHUaHOK a H a j I O r M H H b l eBponeücKKH, OTJIHMaiOTCH C B O e o 6 p a 3 H Ł I M BOCTOHHblM CTHJieM. reiie3Hc: P o a h h o u eBpeifCKofł BbruwnanKH ABjificTCfl ^ a j i b HMM B O C T O K . HO McKyccTBO B b i p e 3 b i B a H H H M3 6 y M a r w , H a n a n o K O T o p o iay a e p o H T H o n o J i o a í M J i T e a T p Teneu, c T c n e H H e M BpeMCHM s e e GoJiee pacnpocTpaHfiJiocb, o x B a T b i B a n Kuraü, HBy, nepcHM II TypuHio, o T T y ^ a npoHHKan b CeBepnyio AeppuKy, a 3 a e M b X V I I b. b M a . i n K > u 3 p y ™ e CTpaHbi T T Enponbi. OieBHflHO HCKyCCTBO BbIpe3ŁIBaHHH 6btJI0 3HaK0MO BOCTOHHbIM C B p e f l M C flaBHHX H O p , n p u n i e M C O X p a H M B U I H e CH MaTepnajibi C B H f l C T e j i b C T B y w T o t o m , HTO o h o cyine- CTBOBajio B Enpone y ^ e b X V I I b. 179 �M 3 storo c a e f l y e T , H T O e n p e t ł e K i i e B b u i H H a H K W HMeioT CTapyK) TpaflHUiiio, c o n p o s o H i f l a B i u y i o e B p e e s B pa3JiHHCBeTa. TpaaMUMH s r a BiiflüK3MeHHjiacb c o w i a c HO MeCTHŁIM O O b l H a s M M nOTpeÖHOCTHM. O B3aHM0CBH3H MeHîfly eBpeHCKMMH IIHHaHKaMtl MOîKHO rOBOpHTb M nOJIbCKHMH TOJIŁKO a OTHOLLieHHM BblTOM r p y n n b i BbíUHuaHOK, KOTopbie iiaKJieHBaJincb Ha oKHa B npa3flHHK T p O W I I b l , n O C K O J l b K y TOJlbKO T 3 K M 6 6ŁIJIH 3HaKOMbr n o j i b C K O M y Hacejieiraio. HeKoropbie MOTMBBI 3 T O H r p y n n b i , K a K p c a e T K H , rrrHUbi, orjtejibHbie p a c T H T e J i b i i L i e H r o o M C T p j i H e c K H e o p n a M e H T b i flo n 3 B e c m o i i C T e n e H H CXOaCH C n O J I b C K H M H . O cymecTBoaaHHH EaaiiMHoro B J I H H H H H CBHfleTejibC T a y e r T O H T O n e p r a e n o j i b C K H e BbiiiMHaHKii BbmojiHHJiMCb n o o 5 H o e e p e H C K M M , M3 D e j i o K 6 y M a ™ . Kpowe T o r o B X I X B . nojibCKHe fibimmaiim BcrpeHajiiicb Ha T O M TKS T e p p i i T o p m i , r e espeMCKMe, T . e B K o p o J i e B C T a e iiojibC K O M , B OKpecTHOCTHX JlbBOBa, T a p n o n o j i a u C r a H M c ^ a B O B a . H a « « n o j i a r a T b , H T O HOCHTejtHMM M c K y c c T B a B H I J K H 3 H 0 K 6ŁUIH C T p a H C T B y i o u i n e pOMGCJiCHHMKH Jin5o e B peMCKWe T O p r O B I J b l , ycnexH c e p n e i r K H x x y a o i K H i i K o B B b i 3 B a J t H y B a s i e H w e OKpyjKaiouiMX, H O M X e x y j i b n T y p b i He HaxoflflT n o K y n a T e jieii, T a K - K a K H e c o o T B e T C T B y w T s c T e T H i e C K M M B K y c a n TenepeiuHeñ jiepesHM. TBKUM o6pa30M co3flaeTCii K a K 6yaTo 6 m npocbeccMH cKyjitnTopa, K D T O P M M paSoraer B aepeBHe RJix HyjKa ropowa, fljia ¿ K c n o p r a . D o B H T O B b r e B J i a CTM y f l e j i H K ) T x y f l O H t H H K a i n M f i o r o BHMMâHHH, npoeKTMpyÏOT flasce O T K p H T b B Cepnqe p e r H O n a j i b U b r i i My3eii. CKyjiLnxopy P y n i K O B C K O M y n o c T p o r i J i n MacTepcKyw M a 3HaHMJIH CTHIieHflMfO. H K J j i M y u i A. X p o c T M ^ K t ^ — KOPAJlJIbl, COCKA M niErOJI ( r O T M H E C K O E MCKycCTBO M HAPOAHBIE BEPOBAHHH) i ! . J f l f l MapeK Apnaji KoBajibCKK — U.EHTP HAPCylHOM C K y j I b l T T y p B I CEPIiEUKMil H B n a c T o a m e o B p e i i í t O ^ H I I M 113 c a M b i x oJKHBjienHbix Ł i e i i T p o B Hapo,i(í-iofí C K y j i b H T y p b i H B J I H C T C H cepneuKuü noBHT (MasoBiiie). T a M p a 6 0 T a i o T 12 C K y j i b n T o p o s . 3TOT u e H T P B03HMK jïMiiiL E n o c i c n H i i e r o a b i : n e p B t i e C K y j i b n T y p b i P y n i K O B C K o r o , CtftDKMHbCKoro, ß e p M H H t c K o r o , K p a npe^CTaBJieHb] n a B b i c T a s Kax H K o i i K y p c a x B 1958 r . T H K M M o C p a a o M C T a j M B O S powcflaTbcn OTMiipaBiinie Stuio Tpannu,HM HapoaHoii cKyjibnTypti. B O S H H K H O B e H H e H P 3 3 B H T H C C C p n e U K O r O U e i l T p a 6bIJIQ B L I 3 B S H 0 CnpOCOM H a 3TOT BHfl T B O p H O C T B a , T O H H e e M H T e p e c o M , K o T o p w i á n p o H B H j i a B M O M O T H o m e H H H UenejinH ( H e E I T p HapOflHOM XyflOSieCTBetlHofi IipOMbllUJieUHOCTM), a T a K J K E K O H K y p c a M M u B w c T a B K a M H (He TOJibKO B n o j i b u i e , H O u sa e e n p e o e J i a M n B EpyKJimie w. C a m a * e ) ; 3 T 0 C03flajJO B O 3 M 0 > K H O C T b C O b l T a K H K B I l O J I b l l i e , T a x M 3 a pyGcîKOM, B 1962 r. B u y s PyujKOBCKOro — K p a e E C K o r o — A H , T. B e ^ c x o s C K H , KypoBCKti, M,cnyejH B MOHorpacpMH, n o c B a m e H H O M M3o6paHieHwio MaflonH b i H 3 fleiiée, r o p a 3 f l o o x H e x J i i i B e e H 6 M x y f l o i K e c T B e i m a i i opopiaa, B b i c T y n a i o T npo6jieMb( waeMHoro coflepacaraiíi. A l t O H H M H M Í t BejIHKOnOJIŁCKHH x y ^ O Ä H H X ; CepeflMHbl X V B. npeflCTaBHji ßeBy Maputo B Kopa.iJioBOM oatepejibe c MJiaflemieM H a p y K a x . Ma^OHHa a e p j K K T B p y K a x c o c K y u mewia H a H H T O H K C B CBOTe HCcjienoBaroíÉí < î > p n J ï e M a H H a , K a e a i o i n M x c H 3 H a i e i i H n ruerna K e s p o n e ö c K O M K y j i Ł TOBOM H C K y c c T B e MaaoHiia us fleMoe a a m i M a e i M C K J I E O HHTejitHoe Meero. K coaca^eHHio <&p!i eMaHH oSoiiieji M o j i n a H M e M n o j i b c s y i o H i w s o n n c b . a T a K î t t e flOJiJKHbiM o5p a a o M H e y ^ e j i a i M B o n w c H Hexwii, M o p a s M H u EOHCHOH ctm repMamtw. B APyroíí H a c T i î c T a T t M n p e A C T a s n e H b i H3o6pa»teHHH cocKH u roBopiiTCH o ee ruiacTHiecKwe cHMBOJinnecKOM 3HaHeHHM. rjiaBHbiM TesHcoM, BbiTeKaromriM H 3 aHaJTMsa O T ^ e ^ b - Hbrx sjieHeiiTOB, H B J I H G T C H n p e a n o B O K e i m e , - I T O noHjnoBaroraraprjfflM ™ ™ J , , flCHŁ p K 0 P a J 1 J I X™XVlï BepoBaHHH l T T.e. e ep Xfla, owjia 0 f l P W T e j l e 6OM3HŁ w - a c C M a T P nptiHiiHOfi peoenKa OTflejibHbie H B a K ) T C H H a HeM3- MOTMBM: * 0 H 0 ™- ^^^T^O^T^mnJL^Í^S^ 8B a X X Vv l u ï R AV v iI -A K o M e H T H p y f l iweimoe c o f l c p w a H H e nosflnero ne¬ R Kap nH b i , a s T o p c T a T b M r i b i T a j i c n ao H 3 B e c r H O ö c r e n C H H n c n o j i b 30BaTb H a p o Ä H b i e BeposaKWH, TOTHHOCKOM T B. HeKoropoe T C T e r , H O M e H e e c n o c o e H t i e B 3 H a n-iTe Jib H O Ü M e p e O T n a flaiOT, H e O T B e n a í i c r p o r w M T p e S o e a H K H M H ¡ e n e j i t m . Cep^ e ^ K H Í í KOJiJieKTHB C K p e n j i a e T TaKûii ¿ a s T o p , K a K 6 J I M 3 K o e coeeflCTBo, n a c r b î e KOHTaKTbr, oömne H H r e p e c w H n o p o ü coBMecTHLie ô o j i e e K P v n H b i e o a ö o T b i K a K HanoMnieD a j r r a p f c (H.iJi.) H a u r p y n n o B a a H C T o p M M e c i a a KOMMAS „KoeiMuiKOBCKan HiicyppoKHHH". BaaMMHoe BjiHaKiie MOJKHO 3 a M 6 T H T Ł B X a p a K T C p H W X H e p T a X , CBOÜCTBeHHbrX GojibUiMHCTBy C K y j i b n T y p c e p n e q K o r o qoHTpa, a H M Ë H H O . cnoco6 c p o p M H p o B a H M n rabiSbi, cxeMaTHnecKan TpaKTosKa rpHryp. CKyuuii opHaweHT, B w p a 3 M r e a b H w e n e p T b i H 3 0 G p a i K a e M u x nunJ B cTopone OT r p y n n b i cepnei^Kiix w 3aBHfl3Knx C K y j i b n T o p o s flepjfCHTCii E j i e H a I H n n a s K a - r o j i e M O M O B C K a . E e n p t i MMTMBHbte e x y j i b n T y p b i H e n o J i b s y i o T C H o a o o p e H i i e M M e c T iibix BjiacTefi H IíeiiejiMw. T e w n e Menee a s T o p CTaTbii HaxoAMT, H T O e c pa6oTbi flocTotiHbi oQcyjKfleKHÄ i i H T O n o Kpaiinen M e p e B a p w a B C K O M y 9 T H o r p a * K H e c K 0 M y M y a e i o e j i e f l o B H J i o ñbi V ^ M I I T L H M B H H M a H w e . ^ a j i e c a B T o p ni-imeT o ^ o c T o w H C T B a x u HeflocTaTKax l l e n e j i H i r B OTHOiiieHHH e e 3 a 6 o T o n a p o f l H b i x y i n e n b i ^ a x . flOGTOHHCTBOM H B J l i i e T C H COM HO CCGC O^iaKT B O S H K W H O B e HMÍI c e p n e ^ o r o ueHTpa, e r o pa3BHTłie, 6 O J I Ł U I H C jj,oxo«bt (CKyjibnTopOB). H e a o c T a T K O M J K 0 Haflo c H i i r a T b T O , H T O B03HHKaer onacnocTb npeBpameHMH TBopnecKoii paSorbi B MaCCOBOe n p O H 3 B 0 a C T B 0 , H a B H 3 b I B a H I t e T e M a T H K H I I X V W x e c T B e H H w x * o p M . MepKaHTHJibHOCTb, KOTopaH n o o y i ne r í o BHyTpeHHeMjr BCJierono, a n o 3aKQ3y. A H H a K y H H H H b C K a - M p a ą K a — MCKyCCTBEIIH b l E I I B E T b l . 3 A M E H A H M H B CBH3M C B A P I H A B CKOH BblCTABKOH I I o H T M B O s c e x p a í i o H a x . nojibuiM A e j i a r o T M C K y e c T s e H H b i e U B C T M n 9 T O T BMA iiapofliioro T B o p i e c T s a npnHa jieJ K H T K Pflfly T 6 X , KOTOpbie B HaCTOTmee B pCM« OTJIHHaÍ O T C H OCOBOM flHHaMMKoa P Q 3 B H T H H . H e K y c C T B e H H b i e q e f l B y K P a Ü i e H OK^HorT x ^Hr n°r ^ K ^ ™ BoeabflCTBax, M yxpauiaioT T a K ™ ™ ¡ f s ^ T MHiiOBaHMH yconuinx. B Ł B n e r o P e n M H HßeTbi, KaK irpamwo, W J I B I O T n e w i ^ , nauje Bcero AJiH c e o f l M JIM w i n o j i H i K a i r u i M X c o c e a o K K p o M e T o r o c y mecTByeT iiecKOJibso Kpynnbix ^earpos npoHSBOflcroa B C K y c c T B e H H b i x uBeTOB aa* n p c w a x H H a H p M a p K a x n a np ep, K03erj Bb M Cernen. ^ y í K b i 6 J I H 3 Heiicroxosa. H M I O I q e e T b i rjiaBHwM oGpasoM flOJiawr H 3 oObiKHOBeHHOW w qaeTHoíi naniipocHOÜ Oywarw. M 3 n e p t n u e K flejiawT UBCTbi npeMMyiuocTBCHHu nofl H C H C T O X O B O W , B O H Q H M H C K O M u K y p n e a c K O M p a i i o n a x . B oKpecTHOCTHX H e n e r o xoBa flenaiOT TaKHte U B C T U M S crpyjKeic. B Bojibuie B c e r o u s e T O B , n p H T O M c a M b i x n n T e p e c u b i x xyaoHtecTBeHHOM OTHOiueHi™, s e J i a W T B p a w o H a x 6 o r a - Tbix TpaflwuwHMH E HapoflHoro KypneBCKOM, JIOBMUKOM npiiKJiaflHoro HCKyccTBa: M KeJiei;KOM. B H H B a p e 1965 r . U e n e j i K H ( I l e H T p H a p o f l i i o i i xy«oJKecTBeHHOH npoMbiujjieHHocTH), ycTpOHjia nepByio B W C T a B K y HCKyecTBeHHbrx u s e T O B , KOTOparj noJib3DBajiaci. r p o M a ^ H b i M y c n e x o M . Bee S K C n o e a T b i 6 W J I H p a c n p o a a i i b i noCC'l-HTCJIHM. ; �r CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A A R T Y S T Y C Z N E I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. d u ż e g o formatu, o k o ł o 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k , 64 str. d u ż e g o f o r m a t u , bogaty m a t e r i a ł ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zl, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 170 str. druku, o k o ł o 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 3U zł, roczna — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , o k o ł o 130 str. d r u k u , liczne p r z y k ł a d y Cena IB zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. Wszystkie czasopisma n a b y w a ć meracie. można regularnie jedynie w nutowe. prenu­ K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y — w roku 1966 przestanie się u k a z y w a ć ; zeszyt 4 za rok 1965 będzie ostatnim numerem tego czasopisma. W A R U N K I PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ SZTUKI LUDOWEJ" P r e n u m e r a t ę na k r a j p r z y j m u j ą u r z ę d y pocztowe, listonosze oraz O d działy i Delegatury „ R u c h " . M o ż n a r ó w n i e ż d o k o n y w a ć w p ł a t na konto P K O Nr 1-6-100020 — Centrala K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w „ R u c h " Warszawa, u l . W r o ­ nia 23. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są do 15 dnia m i e s i ą c a p o p r z e d z a j ą c e g o okres prenumeraty. Cena prenumeraty: p ó ł r o c z n i e zł 36, rocznie zl 72. P r e n u m e r a t ę na z a g r a n i c ę , k t ó r a jest o 40% d r o ż s z a — przyjmuje Biuro Kolportażu Wydawnictw Zagranicznych „ R u c h " Warszawa, ul. Wronia 23, tel. 20-46-88, konto PKO Nr 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze n u m e r ó w zdezaktualizowanych m o ż n a n a b y w a ć w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m Prasy Archiwalnej „ R u c h " , Warszawa, u l . N o w o w i e j ­ ska nr 15/17, konto P K O N r 114-6-700041 V I I Oddział Miejski Warszawa. A k t u a l n e numery czasopism I n s t y t u t u Sztuki P A N posiada Rozpowszechniania W y d a w n i c t w Naukowych P A N w P a ł a c u i N a u k i w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury S t o ł e c z n e Z a k ł a d y Graficzne, Z . I. W - w a , P o d c h o r ą ż y c h 39. Z a m . 502/65. P a p . i l u s t r . k i . I I I , 120 g A l + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . n i . 220 g. B l . N a k ł a d 1271) egz. E - 7 5 i ! I j \ i � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/25aaa0f311ed4b7cca00d55b69a65018.pdf 919adc565756df6529f80e1eba6ea4e8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4837 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4490 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1965 t.19 z.4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1965 t.19, z.4; s.242-243 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Resume Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F O L K S A R No. 4 Q U A R T E R L Y P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E A R T I N S T I T U T E OF T H E P O L I S H A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES YEAR BOOK X I X T 1965 SUMMARY OF A R T I C L E S Miroslava L u d v i k o v a , Brno — F O L K B L O C K - P R I N T I N G O N FABRICS MORAVIAN Such printed fabrics from the 18th and 19th centuries are relics of old technique w h i c h , at the beginning of the 15th century, was the starting point i n book p r i n t i n g . Up to the 18th century printed fabrics were only used by gentry and rich burghers,, the lower strata of the population only saw such fabrics on the occasion of certain church ceremonies at w h i c h pomp was not allowed (lent, mourning, periods of epidemics, etc.). I n the 18th century, the block calico-printing technique was mastered by r u r a l artisans and became something of a folk handicraft. The designs were p a r t l y influenced by traditional patterns (even taken from book printing), partly by the production of artisans, manufactures and factories and partly by regional folk tastes and customs. The authoress describes examples of Moravian folk calico-prints obtained by block p r i n t i n g (that is, printed from designs made on wooden blocks or copper plates) and divides them into three basic groups according to their use: (1) fabrics for personal use, e.g. clothes l a i d on the bed of a confined woman and ornamented towels, w i t h motifs taken f r o m o l d forms. (2) Fabrics the function of w h i c h was connected w i t h the printed text, and the technique was similar to book-printing. Many of them were simply wood engrav­ ings, only printed not on paper but on fabric w h i c h was more durable and more easily obtained. Pictures showing religious scenes were sold at church festivals, fairs, and they served as icons, scapulars, etc. Handker­ chiefs w i t h p r i n t e d pictures and town-plans were brought by soldiers returning home, as souvenirs. Sometimes satirical pictures and historical scenes were also p r i n t e d on handkerchiefs. There is a separate group of older, more p r i m i t i v e prints used i n the countryside and inspired by p r i m i t i v e folk wood engravings, old chronicles and fair songs. This group includes eastern-Slav prints showing the flight to Egypt, episodes f r o m St. Stephen's life, etc. A l t h o u g h they served other purposes, one can easily discover that they inherited much from the old printed tapestry showing various scenes and used as interior ornaments i n old times. I t has been ascertained that prints of this k i n d were k n o w n i n Moravia i n the 16th century. (3) Printed fabrics, used particularly for women's dresses, appeared i n the middle strata at the beginning of the 18th century and i n the m i l i e u of r u r a l population later, but were used up to the end of the 19th century. Home-made linen or any other one-colour material brought by the customer was printed w i t h special blocks. I n south-east M o r a v i a and south-east Slovakia kerchiefs were printed w i t h black designs; i n other regions cotton fabric used for men's shirts was printed, etc. B u t tech­ nical possibilities and the craft of artisans were l i m i t e d : the p r i n t made w i t h boiled o i l paint was perishable and was spoiled by washing. The authoress deals mostly i n her article w i t h the first group of tapestries used for the ornamentation of the i n t e r i o r (curtains, w a l l tapestry, bedspreads). The tapestries she depicts i n her article mostly date from the 18the century or the beginning of the 19th century at the latest. They differ from relics once used by the gentry, they also differ from folk block prints from other regions published so far, because each region added some i n d i v i d u a l features to this form of folk art, something directly connected w i t h its own traditions. The authoress recalls how different as regards their application and form are printed fabrics from Poland, Ukraine, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, and analysing the features of Moravian prints she comes to the con­ clusion that as regards their composition they are similar to embroidery, folk embroidery above a l l . Such prints are devoid of figured motifs, often occurring i n old woven fabrics. On the other hand, such motifs are often found i n occasional prints. When describing the Cataje towel (fig. 2) w i t h colours characteristic for this locality, the authoress states that observance of local traditions is one of the 242 basic features of Moravian printed fabrics. They were made to order of the customer and thus corresponded to the style of folk art i n the given locality or region. They were printed on linen cloth w i t h wooden blocks, pigment colouring matter being used (oil or albumen). The basic pattern was printed i n dark-blue, almost black, and additional colours were then added, e.g. red, light blue, yellow. The authoress describes bedspreads w i t h features characteristic for local traditions (fig. 4, 5) and the bedspread w h i c h is best from the point of v i e w of p r i n t i n g technique, (fig. 6), most probably made for people of the bourgeois milieu. I n conclusion the authoress polemizes w i t h the opiniin of C. schirk and P. Notker C u r t i who considered that prints were only a substitute for more expensive fabrics and thus were deprived of any artistic values. Maria Paradowska BAMBERS - T H E COSTUME OF T H E I n the years 1719—1750, the villages belonging to the t o w n of P o z n a ń , w h i c h had been depopulated following the Swedish wars and plagues, were colonized by German population brought from the locality of Bamberg i n Bavaria, and Southern Germany. These people k n o w n as the Bambers, were q u i c k l y Polonized and, about 1850", the inhabitants of German origin were completely assi­ milated w i t h the Polish r u r a l population of that region. The influence of the Bambers on the culture of the Polish population of the villages belonging to the t o w n of P o z n a ń is seen most distinctly i n the women's costumes. B u t men used to follow Polish peasant's costu­ mes as soon as the X l X t h century. After the villages were incorporated i n t o the t o w n at the beginning of the 20th century the costume lost its importance and, i n the middle of the 20th century, was only functionally connected w i t h the rites of the Catholic Church, being w o r n by elderly women participating i n processions. These women have handed the costume down to their children, who, under the influence of the r u r a l culture and fashions,, no longer w a n to wear i t . Ewa Snieżyńska-Stolot, Stefania Krzysz­ t o f o w i c z — PAINTER JĘDRZEJ MAZURKIEWICZ The authors describe the polychrome m u r a l painting in three chapels i n the neighbouring villages of Wola Zarczycka and Huciska. The polychromes were painted at short intervals of time, they are similar i n form and are a l l signed by the painter Mazurkiewicz. They are painted i n distemper and each of them is composed of the following elements: 1) the figures of saints on the external walls ( w i t h an ornamental frieze above them), 2) inscriptions over the doors giving the name of the founder and the date, 3) polychrome painting on the ceiling. The chapel at Wola Zarczycka also has poly­ chrome painting on the external walls. J ę d r z e j Mazurkiewicz, polychrome artist, born 1834 at K r z e s z ó w - o n - t h e - S a n , died i n 1866. He was an organist i n the village of Wola Zarczycka. A p a r t from painting, he also carved figurines of saints. He was a self-taught folk artist, but he was also influenced by the artistic centre of Leżajsk, w h i c h was flourishing at that time. Maria Źywirska - JÓZEF WIACEK'S PANORAMA The authoress introduces an interesting personality, an amateur painter — a Polish emigrant l i v i n g i n France. T h i r t y five years ago, Wiącek, not being able to find w o r k i n Poland, l i k e many others, signed a contract to go and w o r k i n the mines and left his native village in the Rzeszów region. His o w n fate and that of his fellow countrymen i n France gave h i m the idea of painting a great work, a panorama of 45 pictures, depicting the dramatic life story of the Polish emigrant miner. His intentions i n painting this w o r k were didactic; he wanted to express his own reflections and experience of life as a w a r n i n g to the young generation to save them from sharing his o w n fate. �W i t h his panorama, w h i c h took h i m six years t o paint a n d absorbed a l l his savings, W i ą c e k travelled to various places i n France, particularly to places where there were large concentrations of Polish emigrants. His exhibition i n Deauville brought h i m a great success and the Grand P r i x Internationale. I t also brought h i m the attention of Paris, where three exhibitions were arranged for h i m (Salon d'Hiver, Salon des I n d é p e n d a n t s 1960, Y M C A - 1962). w o r n i n the towns, w i t h much more embroidery than the restrained ornamentation designed b y Fatla and his con­ temporaries. Wanda Gentil-Tippenhauer STANISŁAW F A T L A - T H E MOST F A M O U S F O L K T A I L O R I N T H E PODHALE DISTRICT H e l e n a Ś r e d n i a w a - T H E WORK SCULPTORS F R O M JURGOWO The o l d highlanders' folk costumes were almost completely unornamented (only some edges were laced). I t was only the last decade of the last century that brought quick changes i n the costume, including the introduction of multicoloured embroidered decoration, the fashion o f wearing short capes (known as „ c u c h a ' in Polish) t h r o w n over one shoulder Hussar style, etc. The authoress discusses this period of changes t a k i n g as an example the most w e l l - k n o w n and creative tailor of folk costumes i n the Podhale district — S t a n i s ł a w Fatla. He was born i n 1865, learnt the trade of tailor i n 1886 and w o r k e d as such t i l l ripe o l d age. He died i n 1961. The analysis of his w o r k shows that, w i t h his wife, K a r o l i n a K a p ł o n , an embroideress, he was very inventive in the realm o f embroidery on highlanders' trousers (fig. 3—6), i n introducing machine stitching t o outline edges, etc. T h e c u t of the highlanders trousers made by Fatla was t i g h t f i t t i n g to the legs and he was also the first to introduce the short w h i t e cape (cucha) ornamented w i t h embroidery l i k e the a p p l i q u é w o r k on the jackets and sheepskin coats made at L i p t ó w (fig. 10). Fatla was assisted i n his w o r k by his w i f e and six children; the eldest son,, S t a n i s ł a w , is today a w e l l - k n o w n tailor o n those parts. Fatla senior set fashions, having excellent i n t u i t i o n regarding changes i n the tastes of his highland customers. However, after the last w a r , only the older highlanders remained faithful customers, the younger men preferring looser trousers, more l i k e those r i O J l b C K O E KBAPTAJIbHblH X» 4 JKYPHAJI J a n S e t k o w i c z - ANDRZEJ BIEROWIEC - CAR­ VER O F F I G U R I N E S F R O M K A S I N K A (CRACOW VOIVODSHIP) The article introduces a folk sculptor, born i n 1903, who has been developing his artistic w o r k since 1938. OF Y O U N G A m o n g the folk artists of the highland regions the group of young people at Jurgowo is w o r t h y of particular attention. The group was founded i n December 1963 on the i n i t i a t i v e of the folk artist Andrzej Gombos. Under his guidance, b u t leaving t h e young people complete artistic freedom, a most interesting group o f eleven sculptors has come into being. T h e i r w o r k — showing a certain influence of t r a d i t i o n a l f o l k art, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the figurines of saints, w h i c h are not very numerous — is distinguished f o r i t s uniqueness both as regards form and subject, where lay themes p r e v a i l i n accordance w i t h the interests o f the boys. The use of similar tools (an ordinary k n i f e a n d flat chisel) and of the same matterials (small blocks of waste wood), impose small forms (up to 20 cm) upon the artists and as they have a l l attained more or less the same level of s k i l l , a l l this gives t h e i r w o r k certain common features. Another common feature is the unique character of these sculptures, resembling the a r t of a child rather than folk art. B u t the group has produced some very talented a n d i n d i v i d u a l artists, for instance 15-year-old Beniamin M i ś k o w i c z (fig. 8) a n d Jan Chowa­ niec (fig. 2, 6, 7), 14-year-old Jan M a r t i ń c z u k (fig. 10), Józef Wojtas (fig. 9) and A n d r z e j Sołtys (fig. 3-5). The first year's w o r k of the group was crowned by an e x h i b i t i o n of sculptures at the Tatra Mountains Museum. As t i m e w e n t on the group decreased i n n u m ­ ber. Some of the young people have gone away to schools elsewhere and three boys have gone t o the secondary art school i n Zakopane. H A P O A H O E H C K Y C C T B O M3flABAEMbIÏÏ HHCTMTyTOM MCKYCCTBA n O J I b C K O Ï Ï rOfl H3«AHMH X I X AKAflEMMM HAYK 1965 P E 3 K> M E MwpocnaBa JIwflBHKOBa, BpHO — pwcyHKaMM pa3JiMHHeMLueM TeiviaTHKM m njianaMM r o poflOB npHB03HJin B KanecTBe cyBeroipoB B03BpamaBm n e c H flOMOji coji^aTbi. Ha njiaricax nenaTaJincb tbkJKe KapTHHKH CaTMpilKO-MCTOpMHeCKOrO COflepjKaHHH. 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HocoBbie njiaTKH npofla- npecTOJibHbix o6pa3KOB, c OTnęHaTaHHbrMH HaKo TexHwiecKiie HMKOB C 6wjim nOMOmblO bo3mojkhocth m no3HaHwa pewecJieH- BecbMa orpaHUMeHbi: y 3 o p b i , nenaTaeeMbie OJIHdpbl 6bIJIM HenpOHHbIMM m jiwhhjim b çTfipKe. 243 �Abtop C T a T b w p a c c M a T p M B a e T r j i a B H b r M o5pa30M n e p T K a H e ü , y n o T p e ô J i H B U i M X C H fljia y K p a u i e H w a MHTepbepoB: flpanpn, o6om, n o K p b i B a J i a H a K p o B a T H . Byro rpynny XIX bb. XVIII m B C T a T b e o n w c b r a a i o T C H tk3hw Haiajia Ohm p c G H H T C H ot CTapbix, y n o T p e ß j i H B u i H x c a H e K o r f l a uijTHXTOM, K a K w ot BbinycKaeMbix flo e u x n o p „ n p a M w x " Ha6oeK ^ p y r M X p a ü o H O B , TaK-KaK KajKflbrä perwoH 3TOT T B o p n e c T B a H T o - T O CBoe, C B H 3 a H H o e c e r o bhocmji bmä b C06CTBeHHbIMH TpaffTmHHMM. OTMenan nein po3hhtch no cBoeiviy HasHa^eHMio m dpopnie H a ß u B H b i e T K a r o i IIojibirjM, y K p a p i H b i , MTajiMM, TepiwaHMH u H l B e ü i i a p u M , a B T o p y T B e p j K f l a e T , hto no c B o e ü KOMn03HIIMM M O p a B C K U e T K a H M H a n O M M H a i O T BblHJMBKM b ocooohhoctm HapoflHoro HcaHpa. B TaKMX TKanax HeT cbwrypHbix motmbob, K O T o p b i e n p o K ^ e n a c T o B C T p e n a j i n c b B T K a H b e B b l X H3flejIMHX. H o 3 a T 0 3TM MOTMBbI B C T p e naioTca b TKaHHX, BbmoJiHaeMbix H a ejiynaH. OrmcbiBaH n o j i O T e i n i e M3 HaTae (mjiji. 2) c x a p a K TepHOM flJIH TOM MeCTHOCTM paCLIBeTKOM, aBTOP npMXOflMT K y6eHCfleHMK), mto o^hoü P13 OCHOBHblX H e p T M O p a B C K H X HaßoeK aBjiaerca corjiacoBaHHocTb c MecTHbiMH T p a j i M flejiajiHCb no 3 a K a 3 y n o K y n a T e j i a u o r a e n a j i M cTMJiio H a p o ^ H o r o j f C K y c c T B a flamroü MecraocTM pe- uhhmm. Ohm rjioHa. mjim PwcynoK «epeBHHHbix nenaTajica cbopM H a noJiOTHe rrHrMeHTHOü K p a c K o ü n p n noMoniH (MacnaHoü mjim ajIbÖVMMHOBOPl). OCHOBHOM V 3 0 p BbinOJIHHJICH TeMHO-CHH e ü , n o H T H H e p H o ü K p a c K o ü ; .ziorawiHMTejibHO n p p i M e H a JTHCŁ TaKHie K p a c H a a , cBeTjio-roJiyGaa, scejiTaa KpacKM. p a c c M a T p M B a e T TMriMHHbie RJIX M e c r a b i x Tpa^pniMM Abtop Map ua X n B n p c K a — IIAHOPAMA K)3E*A BMOHITKA A B T O p CTaTbM 3H3KOMPIT H H C T a T e j I H C M H T e p e C H O i ł JIMHHocTbH) xyflOHCHMKa-jnoôMTejia, no^bKoro 3M«rpaHTa bo <J>paHu,MH. 35 Jier Toiny Ha3aa, Bmohiick, ne MMea B03M O K H O C T M HaíÍTM 3 a H n T M e H a pOaWHe, 3aKJIIOHMJI, B HMCJle M H o r w x eiwy nofloBHbix, K O H r p a K T H a p a 5 o T y bo c b p a H uy3CKoii peBHio. maxTe m rroKMHyji po^Hyio j K e m o B C K y i o « e KaK cy«b6a ero c o o T e H a nyjKÔMHe, n o 3 C K a 3 a J i a eMy ciojKeT K p y n H o r o npoM3BefleHMa — naHopaMbi, coflepjKarueii M3 45 KapTMH, o T o ô p a x a r o i r i H X ropecTHyio cy^bôy n o j i b C K o r o i n a x T e p a - 9 M M r p a H T a . C naHopaMOH, H a ocymecTBjieHMe KOTopoii norpeôoBanocb mecTb ner, K o r o p a a norjioTMjia Bce ero c6epeJKeHMH, B M O H I ^ e K e3flMJI no pa3JIMHHbIM p a M O H a M O p a H r r M M , m Co5cTBeHHaa cy^bôa, HecTBeHHMKOB, O M y T M B u i M X c a iimkji b nepByio onepeflb Tyaa, r « e MMeiOTca CojibuiPfe cKonjieHMa noubCKMX 3MnrpaHTOB. H a B b i C T a s K e b ^oBpiJib n a HopaMa BMOHqKa n o J i b 3 0 B a j i a c b rpoMa^HbiM ycnexoM. EMy npwcyflWJiM npeMMio Grand P r i x Internationale. 3to oBpaTMJio BHMMaHMe napMHta, r^e BMOHiiKy TpwjKflbi opraHM3C«BajiM BbiCTaBKW. Salon d'Hiver, Salon des I n ­ d é p e n d a n t s 1960, YMCA 1962. B a H ^ a r e H i H J i b - T H n n e H r a y s p — CTAHHCJIAB OATJIH — J i y H l I I H l ï H A P O A H H Ï Ï nOPTHOÏt noflrAJita CTapHHHaa oseJKaa roprieB 6bijia noHTPi nHiueHa y K p a uieHMii. JlMuib b KOHiie ripouijioro B e K a npon3oniJiM BOJIbllIHe M3MeHeHMH. Kacaacb stmx M3MeHeHwfi, aBTop CTaTbM n u m e r o C ï a (mjiji. 4,5), a T a K » e caMoe coBepiueHHoe b T e x H M H e c K O M oTHOHieHHM noKpbiBajio (hjiji. 6), c^e- H M c n a B e <t>aTjiM, caMOM H3BecTHOM m o f l a p e H H O M H a p o ^ hom nopTHOM noflrajiba Toro BpeiweHM. Ó a r a a poflMjica jiaHHoe n o Bceü B e p o a T H O C T M n o B i t y c y M e m a H C K O M cpejibi. b 1865 r . , b 1886 r . BbiyHMJica n o p T H a x c H O M y peMecny B 3aKjiK)HeHwe aBTop nojieMH3Mpyer c OTPMiT.aTe.ribm 3aHMMajrca mm ^o no3flHeii CTapocTM. y i n e p b 1961 r. HbiM MHGHMCM Ii;. IIIiipKa pi I I . HoTKep K y p T M (C. Schirek, <ï>aTJia m ero 5K6Ha, BLiuiMBajibUíraía Kapojnma K a n P. Notker Curti), KOTopbie cTOTajiw, mto Ha&oirKM SbiJiK jioh, B H e c J i M M H o r o H O B b i x s j i e M e H T O B b BbiuiMBKy, y K p a jiMiijb 3aMeHMTenHMM Sojiee flopomx TKaHeíí m KBK ramaroiuyio 5piokm ropiieB (mji^. 3—6), BBeJiM M a n i M H H b i e K O B b i e n e n p e ^ c r a B J i H J i H co5oii x y s o H c e c T B e H H o ü i i e H mBbi fíjtn B b i n o j i H e H M a n i H y p o B , OKaMMjiaioiUMx Kpaa HOCTPI. noKpMBaJia MapttH napaflOBCKa — EAMEEPrCKHÎÎ HAPHfl B 1719—1750 r r . jiepeBHM oKpecTHOCTeft Ilo3HaHn, pa3opeHHwe m o n y c T o m e H H b i e H a u i e c T B w a M M u i B e r r o B M anH^eMHHMM, 6bIJIH K0JI0HM3HP0BaHbI HeMIiaMM BaMß e p r c K o r o p a i ł o H a (BaBapHH) m TOjkhoü T e p i u a H i i M . H a cejieHMe 3to, n o J i y M M B U i e e Ha3saHJie „6aM6poB" 6mctpo onoJiaHMJiocb h rrpprMepHo k 1850 r. TKUTejrpt HeiweiiKoro npoPicxoJK^eHPisi nojiHOCTbio accHMHJiHpoBajiPicb, C MeCTHbTMPI nOJIbCKMMPI K p e C T b H H a M T f . «iHBancb Bo33eücTBPie „ B a M ß p o B " H a K y j i b T y p y n o j i b C K o r o H a cejieHMH no3HaHbCK0M jiepeBHPi Sojiee Bcero cKa3breajiocb Ha jKeHCKoti oflejKfle. Mvtkckopi Hapaa yjKe b Hanajie X I X b. nepeHHJipi .,6aM6pw" ot nojibCKiix KpecTbHH. B Hakane X X b., K o r ^ a oKpecTHbie aepeBHM 6biJiPi npwcoeflpiHeHbi k ropowy, H a p a « 3tot n o T e p a j i CBoe n e p Eona'iajibHoe 3HaieHPie, a c c e p e « i i n b i X X b. rrpiioBpeji pickjiio- C T p o r o cpyHKiTPioHajibHbiM x a p a K T e p , c B H 3 a H H b i ü HPITeJIbHO C OOpHflOBbIM K y j I b T O M KaTOJIMMeCKOM rrepKBPi. HapHH 9T0T H a ^ e B a i o T H e M O J i o f l t i e j K e H i u n H b i , n p p r m i M a i o i i i H e y n a c T M e b n p o i i e c c P i a x . Oh n e p e ^ a e T C H n o H a cjieÄCTBy neTHM, KOTopbie, non B j n í H H w e M roponcKoii KyjIbTypbl H MO^bl, OTKa3bIBaiOTCH OrO HOCPITb. 3Ba CHe>KprHCKaa-CTo.TroT. C t e à nhk« KJKMUiToćpOBHH — xy^O^CHMK MASyPKEBMH B craTbe onwcaHa rpynna noJinxpoMPiíí, KOTopbie H a - xo^htch b Tpëx 'qacoBHax. ctohiitox b hbvx cocejn-nrx A e p e B H H x : Bojipi 3apHprqKoii pi X y q p r c K a . OB'be^PiHHroT PIX npMÖJIPTJKeHHbTe #aTbT B03HMKH0BeHMS, CbopM3 M HaK O H e i i n o ^ r r a c M x y ^ o j K H W K a Ma3vpKeBprHa. Bce ohm pi3r o T O B j i e H b i KJieeBoii tcxhmkopi, y hmx o n e H b n o x o î K a KOMn03MIlMÎI, K O T O p a a COCTOMT M3! 1) cbMryp CBJTTblX, noMemöHHMX H a bhcuihi-ix c T e H a x , najx hmmm npojieraeT nonę opHaMeHTa, 2) Ha^rmcpi. b n e c r b n o H î e p T B O B a T e j i e i î , Has flßepHMM, 3) KapTMH Ha n o T O J i K e . B nacoBHe b Bojim 3apMpniKoü n o H B J i H i O T C H K a p T M H b i T a K H c e H a B H e n i H P r x cTenax. XysojKHMK EHflîKefi MasypKeBpni poähjich b 1834 vojsy, b KJKeinoBe Ha/CaHe, ywep b 1886 ro^y. PaßoTaji o p r a HMCTOM s Bojie SapHMiiKoü. Kpoine riMCaHMH K a p T M H , O H 3aHMMajrc3 T o s i e BaHHMeM óbpiryp CBHTbix. CaMov^iKa. HapOSHbrii XyflOJKHMK, MCKyCCTBO KOTOpOrO, OflHaKO, ÖbIJIO nos BJiMHHMeM ropo/ia J l e s o i ł c K a , 244 cuiHBaeMoro c y K H a m T.n. <ï>aTjia n e p B Ł i M y 3 K M e , n j i O T H o oSjieraioiiiMe H o r y GpioKM, CTaji inMTb CTaji m nepsbrM pacnpocTpaHHTŁ 6ejiyK> . f l y x y " (nejiepuHy), yKpameHHyio amuniKanMaMM (na no^oÔMe pacuiMTbrx annjimkaHMaMW j i w n T O B C K K X 6e3pyKaBOK m nojiyniy6KOB — huji. 7—11). <E>aTJiH paSoTaji B M e c T e c Híenoii m flerbMH, kotopwx y Hero 6buio iiiecTepo. CaMbiü cTapuiMM c b r n — Ó r a H P i c j i a B n o c e ñ fleHb C H M T a e T c a i r p e K p a c H b r M nopTHbnvi. C T a p b t M < £ a T j i a co3AaBaji M o « y , M y T K O y j i a B J i M B a a sce M3MeH6HMa B O B K y C a X CBOMX KJIPieHTOB-rOpiieB. O^HaKO nocjie B T o p o u Boitabi eMy ocTajiMCb B e p H H jiiirub c T a p b i e ropqbi: MOJiofleHîb n p e a n o H M T a e T 6 p w K M n o r r r a p e , 6onee HanoMMHaioiiiMe r o p o ^ c K H e SoraTo y K p a u i e H H w e . mmpobom m Hh C e t K O B H i — AHJPKEÏÏ BEPOBEH — HAPOJIHBIÏÏ CKyjIBnTOP H 3 KACHHKH (KPAKOB CKOE BOEBO.ZICTBO) AHAJKeiî BepoBeir poflMnca b 1903 r. OcoSoe pa3BMTwe noJiyHHJio ero tbophcctbo HaHMHaa c 1938 r. EjieHa CpejHSBa — CKyjItnTyPBI MOJIO.ZI.BIX rOPU,EB lOPrOBA CpeflH c o B p e M e H H b i x xy^oîKHMKOB-roprieB Bbi^eJiaeTCîi MOJioaejKHaa r p y n n a M3 TOprosa. KojiJieKTMB stot 06p a 3 0 B a j i c a b aeKa6pe 1963 r. no MHPrqpiaTMBe Hapo^Horo Macrepa AH^jKea ToMBoca. IT03 ero p y K O B O f l C T B O M r p y n n a O f l K H H a f l l i a T M MOJIOflbIX C K y i t b n T O p O B , T B O p n e C K O M MHMiiHaTMBbi KOTopbix coBepmeHHo H e C T e c H a e T , co33ana pafl oneHb MHTepecHbix paSoT. B CKyjibnTypax n p o cKajib3Ł>iBaioT M e p T b i T p a a w q M O H H O r o H a p o a n o r o M C K y c C T B a o c o 6 e H H o b H e M H o r w x H 3 o 6 p a a î e H M a x C B a T b i x , ho BMecTe c T e M ohm OTJiMHaioTCH o p M r M H a n b H o i i , CBoe06pa3H0M CbopMOÜ M TeMaTMKOM. Mojioflbie C K y j i b n T o p w paSoTaiOT c noMouibio ojtMHaK O B W X MHCTpyTUeHTOB (hosc njiocKoe flOJIOTO), M c n o j i b 3 y r o T oflMH s c e MaTeppiaJi (ManeHbKMe 06p y 6 K M , o c T a T K M ^ p e s e c H H Ł i ) ; B c e sto, Hapa^y c OAMHaKOBbrM y p O B H C M n O ^ r O T O B K M MOJIOablX X y ^ O S C H M K O B , npM^aeT mx t b o p M H e c T B y n e K O T o p b i e cxo^Hbie »iepTbi. Mx c K y n b n T y p b i o T J i w ^ a i o T C H c B o e o 6 p a 3 H o i î M a H e p o ü , H a nOMMHaiorxieM C K o p e T B o p n e c T B O peSeHKa n e M H a p o f l HOe M C K y C C T B O . oh m tôt mx m ohm hohtm nepBbiM TOĘ cyuiecTBOBaHMa rpyTrrrbi 3aBepuinjica BbicTaBKopt pa6oT b TaTHîaHbCKOM My3ee. TIocTeneHHO rpynna y M e H b u i a j i a c b m b HacToauiee B p e M a H a c H M T b i BaeT jipmib HecKOJibKO HeJioBeK. Hacrb MOJionescM noexajia y H M T b c a , rpoe nocTymuin b x y ^ o s ç e c T B e H H y i o uiKOJiy, Koropaa HaxOflMTca b MeçTHÇfCTM 3aKonaHe. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez: P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A A R T Y S T Y C Z N E I F I L M O W E B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , kwartalnik, ponad 100 str. dużego formatu, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata półroczna 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , kwartalnik, 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty materiał ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. PAMIĘTNIK T E A T R A L N Y , kwartalnik, ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , kwartalnik, około 130 str. druku, liczne przykłady nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. Wszystkie czasopisma n a b y w a ć można regularnie jedynie w meracie. prenu­ K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y — w roku 1966 przestanie się ukazywać; zeszyt 4 za rok 1965 będzie ostatnim numerem tego czasopisma. WARUNKI PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ S Z T U K I L U D O W E J " Prenumeratę na kraj przyjmują urzędy pocztowe, listonosze oraz Od­ działy i Delegatury „Ruch". Można również dokonywać wpłat na konto P K O Nr 1-6-100020 — Centrala Kolportażu Prasy i Wydawnictw „Ruch" Warszawa, ul. Wro­ nia 23. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są do 5 dnia miesiąca poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty. Cena prenumeraty: półrocznie zl 36, rocznie zł 72. Prenumeratę na zagranicę, która jest o 40% droższa — przyjmuje Biuro Kolportażu Wydawnictw Zagranicznych „Ruch" Warszawa, ul. Wronia 23, tel. 20-46-88, konto P K O Nr 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze numerów zdeaktualizowanych można n a b y w a ć w Punk­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m Prasy Archiwalnej „Ruch", Warszawa, ul. Nowomiejska nr 15'17, konto P K O Nr 114-6-700041 V I I Oddział Miejski Warszawa. Aktualne numery czasopism Instytutu Sztuki P A N posiada Ośrodek Rozpowszechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych P A N w Pałacu Kultury i Nauki w Warszawie. Zakłady Graficzne „Tamka" Zakład Nr 2 W-wa, Podchorążych 39. Zam. 746. Pap. ilustr. kl. I I I , 120 g A l r karton biały kl. I I I . 220 g. B I . Nakład 1270 egz. M-5 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/ad95d5084a6bf4de0bf7ea07c55e3a6f.pdf 7d9d6b51a8122d689bfed0a7c1e19254 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4874 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4523 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1966 t.20 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1965 t.20 z.1; s.70-71 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text н QUARTERLY No. 1 PUBLISHED BY THE к ART INSTITUTE YEAR BOOK OF THE POLISH XX ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1966 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES R o m a n R e i n f u s s - STUDIES ON THE CULTURE OF T H E ŁEMKOWIE O N B O T H SIDES OF T H E CAR­ PATHIANS T h e Ł e m k o w i e , o n e of t h e g r o u p s of U k r a i n i a n h i g h l a n d e r s l i v i n g o n b o t h sides o f t h e C a r p a t h i a n s f r o m Poprad to the valleys of Oslawa a n d Labore, have been r e g a r d e d b y m o s t r e s e a r c h e r s as a g r o u p w i t h a u n i f o r m culture. T h e a u t h o r , w h i l e agreeing w i t h t h e thesis of t h e close r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e f o l k c u l t u r e of t h e Ł e m ­ k o w i e of t h e n o r t h , i n h a b i t i n g areas i n s o u t h e r n P o l a n d and Slovakia, points to a n u m b e r of differences between t h e m . These differences are the r e s u l t of t h e d i f f e r e n t conditions of d e v e l o p m e n t caused b y b e l o n g i n g t o d i f ­ f e r e n t states n e i g h b o u r i n g o n d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c a l g r o u p s . The a u t h o r justifies his thesis b y a n a l y s i n g t h e v a r i o u s f i e l d s of t h e m a t e r i a l f o l k c u l t u r e o f t h e Ł e m ­ k o w i e o n t h e basis o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e s u b j e c t p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e a n d — a b o v e a l l — o n t h e b a s i s of h i s own studies conducted i n t h e t h i r t i e s a n d c o n t i n u e d i n recent years. E s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e sense of b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s , w h i c h is m u c h s t r o n g e r i n t h e n o r t h a n d i s seen i n a v e r y m a r k e d b o r d e r l i n e , difficult to establish i n Slovakia, a n d i n t h e a t t i t u d e t a k e n t o w a r d s t h e n a m e of Ł e m k o , w h i c h is o n l y ge­ n e r a l l y used i n t h e P o l i s h areas. I n b u i l d i n g , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e seen i n t h e l a y o u t of s e t t l e m e n t s a n d o f houses ( T a b l e I , M a p II),, t h e k i n d of t i m b e r u s e d f o r b u i l d i n g , t h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d t o d e f i n e d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n a l e l e m e n t s , a n d also i n t h e p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n of t h e f r a m e w o r k o f b u i l d i n g s , w h i c h is m u c h r i c h e r i n t h e n o r t h . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e f o l k architecture of the Łemkowie developed m u c h m o r e i n t h e P o l i s h areas. I t w a s o n l y a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r that the situation changed. Whereas the Polish Ł e m k o w i e r e b u i l t t h e i r houses, d e s t r o y e d i n t h e w a r , i n the t r a d i t i o n a l fashion, n e w forms appeared i n Slo­ v a k i a ( f i g . 7). As regards i n t e r i o r furnishings, t h e differences on b o t h sides of t h e C a r p a t h i a n s a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e m o s t representative t r a d i t i o n a l i t e m are the coffers i n w h i c h c l o t h i n g is kept. T h e o l d f o r m shaped l i k e a sarcophagus can t o d a y be f o u n d i n t h e n o r t h T h e l a t e r t y p e of c o f f e r , painted w i t h a f l o w e r p a t t e r n , can be f o u n d a l l over t h e area i n h a b i t e d b y t h e Ł e m k o w i e . T h e y a r e m a d e on b o t h sides of t h e C a r p a t h i a n s a n d h a v e p e n e t r a t e d over t h e b o r d e r easily. The biggest r e l a t i v e differences a r e t o be f o u n d i n the r e g i o n a l costumes. H o w e v e r , studies i n t h i s f i e l d a r e m a d e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d a y as t h e m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s h a v e a l m o s t d i s a p p e a r e d n o w . M a n y of t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e o r i g i n a l c o s t u m e o f t h e Ł e m k o w i e , c o m m o n f o r the w h o l e g r o u p , have been changed u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of n e i g h b o u r i n g g r o u p s . T h e strongest influences are Slovakian, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the women's c o s t u m e s ( s h o r t s k i r t s , b l o u s e s w i t h s h o r t p u f f sleeves). T h i s i n f l u e n c e has e x t e n d e d as f a r as t h e P o l i s h b o r d e r areas. O n t h e P o l i s h side, as a r e s u l t of t h e g r e a t e r i s o l a t i o n of t h e Ł e m k o w i e , t h e i r c o s t u m e s h a v e r e t a i n e d a more i n d i v i d u a l character a n d have gone t h r o u g h a n e v o l u t i o n of t h e i r o w n . T h e m o s t e l e m e n t s c o m m o n t o a l l t h e Ł e m k o w i e o n b o t h sides o f t h e C a r p a t h i a n s h a v e been r e t a i n e d i n t h e m e n ' s c o s t u m e s . I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e a u t h o r states t h a t t h e s o u t h e r n areas i n h a b i t e d b y t h e Ł e m k o w i e , w h i c h u p t i l l t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r w e r e one of t h e m o s t p o v e r t y s t r i c k e n areas of t h e H u n g a r i a n s t a t e o f t h a t t i m e , d o n o t e x h i b i t a n y a c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e . T h e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l f o r m s have been preserved t h e r e w i t h o u t a n y change i n t h e i r m o s t p r i m i t i v e f o r m s (or h a v e been replaced b y forms b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e S l o v a k i a n culture, w h i c h w e r e a t t r a c t i v e f o r t h e s o u t h e r n Ł e m k o w i e as being f r o m villages w i t h a higher economic culture). T h e Ł e m k o w i e o f t h e s o u t h p l a y e d a c e r t a i n r o l e , as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e of t h e n o r t h , i n t r a n s p l a n t i n g e l e ­ m e n t s of S l o v a k i a n c u l t u r e . 70 O n t h e P o l i s h side, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s on t h e o t h e r side of t h e C a r p a t h i a n s w a s w e a k , a n d t h e i r contacts w i t h t h e i r neighbours few. T h i s created g o o d c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i r o w n , o r i ­ g i n a l culture. T h e p e n e t r a t i o n of influences f r o m t h e n o r t h to t h e south, despite f r e q u e n t m u t u a l contacts, was however v e r y i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n d e e d . T h i s can be e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f a c t of t h e l o w e c o n o m i c l e v e l o f t h e v i l l a g e s of t h e Ł e m k o w i e , a l s o o n t h e P o l i s h side. I n this situation, the i m i t a t i o n of the Polish Łemkowie wac not connected w i t h aspirations towards a higher standard of l i v i n g , a n d was consequently no attraction. A n n a Ś w i ą t k o w s k a - T H E INTERIORS OF ŁO­ W I C Z C O T T A G E S O F T H E 18th A N D 20th C E N T U R I E S O n t h e basis of a r c h i v e m a t e r i a l s , h i s t o r i c a l r e l i c s and i n t e r v i e w s , t h e authoress desaribes t h e i n t e r i o r s of Ł o w i c z c o t t a g e s a n d t h e c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e o v e r t h e l a s t 150 y e a r s u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n a n d u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . 1. Layout of interior: the m o s t p r i m i t i v e a n d oldest f o r m was t h e o n e - r o o m cottage, w h i c h was g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d b y t w o or t h r e e n r o o m cottages i n t h e last cen­ t u r y , t h e n l a t e r b y f o u r a n d f i v e - r o o m cottages. T h e y all h a d t h e l a y o u t of rooms opening o f f one c o r r i d o r . 2. The functions of the various parts of the cottage interior: a) R o o m s . I n t w o - r o o m cottages, o n e r o o m w a s for w o r k a n d cooking a n d t h e o t h e r w a s t h e „best" r o o m . I n f o u r - r o o m cottages t h e r e a r e : kitchen,, b e d r o o m , d i n i n g r o o m f o r e n t e r t a i n i n g guests a n d t h e g u e s t r o o m , b) H a l l . I n t h e 1 8 t h a n d 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e f i r e p l a c e was i n t h e hall a n d household equipment was kept t h e r e . I n t h e l a t e r cottages w i t h m o r e r o o m s , t h e s t o v e was i n one of rooms a n d t h e h a l l w a s j u s t for passing t h r o u g h a n d for doing w o r k t h a t w o u l d m a k e t h e rooms d i r t y . I n m o s t r e c e n t t i m e s , t h e h a l l is m o s t l y u s e d as a n a n t e ^ r o o m . c) C l o s e t . T h e c l o s e t i s f o u n d i n t h r e e - r o o m cottages. I t h a s n o w i n d o w s a n d i s u s e d f o r k e e p i n g p r o d u c t s a n d a l s o as a b e d r o o m o r d r e s s i n g r o o m for girls. 3. F i r e p l a c e s and stoves. T h e o l d e s t w e r e m a d e of c l a y a n d , f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , of b r i c k . A t t h e e n d of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , k i t c h e n r a n g e s a n d t i l e d stoves began t o appear, t h e l a t t e r o f t e n r e p l a c e d by central heating. 4. Furniture. I n v e n t o r i e s o f t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y m e n t i o n : coffers, beds, tables, stools, triple shelves f o r dishes a n d plates a n d also w e a v i n g looms and s p i n n i n g wheels. I n later times the f o l l o w i n g items are a d d e d : benches, sideboards. A n d a t t h e e n d of the 19th c e n t u r y w e f i n d t h e f i r s t c h a i r s . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , glass cases, chests o f d r a w e r s a n d , even later, wardrobes began to appear. A t first the f u r n i t u r e was homemade, later purchased i n t h e t o w n o f Ł o w i c z or f r o m t h e l o c a l c a r p e n t e r s . E a c h p i e c e of f u r n i t u r e h a d i t s o w n t r a d i t i o n a l set p l a c e ( f i g . 24). T h e o l d e s t p i e c e s o f f u r n i t u r e w e r e v e r y simple, later they w e r e painted or ornamented w i t h c a r v i n g . A f t e r t h e last w a r essential changes t o o k place; t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p i e c e s of f u r n i t u r e d i s a p p e a r e d a n d also t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e cot­ tage. T h e o l d pieces o f f u r n i t u r e a r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d by m o d e r n ones p u r c h a s e d i n t o w n s . 5. D e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t s i n t h e Ł o w i c z cottages. A t f i r s t , the rooms w e r e decorated w i t h p a i n t i n g o n t h e walls ( f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y t i l l a b o u t 1860), l a t e r t h e p a i n t i n g s w e r e o u s t e d b y p a p e r c u t s (1866—1935), a n d a l s o t h e s o - c a l l e d " S p i d e r s " ( d e c o r a t i o n i n t h e shape o f a s p i d e r ' s w e b h u n g f r o m t h e c e i l i n g ) , ( f i g . 35—39), as w e l l as f l o w e r d e c o r a t i o n s m a d e of p a p e r a n d feathers. Beds w e r e decorated w i t h o r n a m e n t a l bedspreads and c u s h i o n s w i t h c o l o u r e d e m b r o i d e r y o r l a c e i n s e t s and e d g i n g s ( f i g . 37). A s f r o m 1935 t i l l t h i s d a y , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l elements are being ousted by the g r o w i n g urban i n ­ f l u e n c e s a n d t h e o l d f o r m s of d e c o r a t i n g Ł o w i c z cottages �are d i s a p p e a r i n g . W a l l p a p e r i s t a k i n g t h e p l a c e o f p a p e r cuts o n t h e w a l l s , a n d s i n c e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r walls a r e p a i n t e d w i t h stencilled patterns a n d decorated with f a m i l y photographs a n d reproductions c u t o u t of illustrated magazines. M a t s purchased a t v i l l a g e fairs are h u n g o v e r beds a n d d i v a n s ( f i g , 44,45). B e d s a r e covered w i t h f a c t o r y m a d e b e d s p r e a d s a n d c u s h i o n s a r e o r n a m e n t e d w i t h m a n u f a c t u r e d lace. P a p e r c u t s a r e only m a d e t o be sold i n t h e t o w n s . Józef M i ko łaj t is AT JASNA GORA SOUVENIR PHOTOGRAPHS The author writes about t h e " F i v e - m i n u t e " souvenir photographs t a k e n against a p a i n t e d b a c k g r o u n d showing t h e J a s n a G ó r a M o n a s t e r y a t Częstochowa. A s f r o m t h e n i n e t i e s -of t h e l a s t c e n t u r y , p h o t o g r a p h i c e n t e r p r i s e s o p e r a t e d i n t h i s t o w n , b u t 'they o n l y s e r v e d t h e m o r e w e a l t h y people. I t w a s o n l y d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r that photographers w i t h cameras a n d e q u i p m e n t f o r making " F i v e - m i n u t e " photographs appeared there, using Talbot's calotype technique, w h i c h m a d e souvenir p h o ­ tographs f r o m Częstochowa accessible t o a l l , t h u s satis­ fying t h e great d e m a n d every year o n t h e p a r t of t h e hundreds o f thousands of pilgrims going there. A t first, photographs w e r e taken against t h e back­ g r o u n d o f F r e n c h p r i n t e d l a n d s c a p e s (1918), b u t a l r e a d y i n 1920, I . R e b o s o r d e r e d t h e f i r s t " s c r e e n " w i t h a p i c t u r e of t h e t o w e r o f t h e m o n a s t e r y . T a k i n g a n e x a m p l e f r o m Rebes, S. K o n d a s z e w s k i b e g a n t o o r d e r c o l o u r e d screens too. T h e a u t h o r d e a l s w i t h t h e w o r k o f K o n d a s z e w s k i , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e photographs of h i s t h a t have been p r e ­ s e r v e d ( f i g . 2 — 5 ) . H e also discusses t h e w o r k o f F . M a ­ z u r e k , w h o , i n 1929, r e t u r n e d f r o m s e v e r a l y e a r s ' t r a v e l s i n France, b r i n g i n g w i t h h i m n e w ideas, such a p h o t o ­ graph taken against a background showing a motor car or a s c r e e n w i t h a n a e r o p l a n e ( f i g . 11,6). T h e n u m b e r of photographers constantly increased, a n d i n 1939 t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l d o z e n o f t h e m . A f t e r t h e war, t h e f i v e - m i n u t e " photographers began t o oust t h e photographers w h o used t h e Leica cameras. T h e y t o o often used a l l sorts of " p r o p s " (painted screens, s t u f f e d a n i m a l s , d w a r f s c u t o u t o f p l y w o o d , e t c ) , (fig. 3 4 - 3 7 ) . П О Л Ь С К О Е КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ № 1 ЖУРНАЛ T h e a u t h o r a t t r i b u t e s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e p a i n t e d screens t o t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f f o l k p a i n t i n g s a d v e r t i z i n g t h e cures or w a n d e r i n g doctors a n d t h e wares of p i c t u r e pedlars at religious festivals a n d c o u n t r y fairs. T h e screens, w h i c h w e r e p a i n t e d i n v i v i d c o l o u r s a n d r i c h l y decorated, w e r e calculated t o suit t h e taste of t h e l o c a l p e o p l e . S o m e o f t h e m w e r e n o t w i t h o u t s o m e of t h e c h a r m o f p r i m i t i v e a r t . A p a r t f r o m screens r e p r e ­ s e n t i n g t h e s a c r a l b u i l d i n g s o f Częstochowa ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e m o n a s t e r y ) , ( f i g . 26, 27, 29, 30), t h e r e w e r e also screens s h o w i n g o t h e r s u b j e c t s — p a l a c e s , b e a u t i f u l g a r ­ dens w i t h a l a k e , castles ( f i g . 2 1 , 22, 25) a n d also cars a n d p l a n e s ( o f l a t e - r o c k e t s ! ) - fig. 12, 13, 19, 20, 23 a n d w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s s u c h as " R e m e m b e r m e " ( f i g . 3 1 — 33). T h e r e h a v e a l s o b e e n n o n - t y p i c a l s c r e e n s , f o r i n ­ s t a n c e , s h o w i n g B e r l i n i n 1945 ( f i g . 28). T h e a u t h o r discusses t h e w o r k o f t h e v a r i o u s s c r e e n painters. M o s t of t h e m a r e self-taught, b u t sometimes t h e y do have a c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a r t of p a i n t i n g . T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o f t h e m i s T . Z . Barański, p h o t o ­ g r a p h e r a n d screen p a i n t e r , w h o i s s t i l l w o r k i n g today. H e helps photographers i n other t o w n s of Poland w i t h his w o r k . (fig. 20-30). T h e screens a r e p a i n t e d i n o i l s o n l i n e n c a n v a s a n d usually measure t w o a n d a h a l f b y three metres. Every so o f t e n t h e screens a r e r e p a i n t e d , t o u c h e d u p . S o m e ­ times t h e date o n t h e m i s changed every f e w days. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of screen p a i n t i n g w a s f u r t h e r e d b y t h e fact t h a t w h e r e c o m p e t i t i o n w a s keen between photographers, those w h o h a d t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d e f f e c t i v e screens h a d m o r e c h a n c e o f a t t r a c t i n g c u s t o ­ m e r s . So e f f o r t s w e r e m a d e t o a d a p t t h e screens t o t h e taste of t h e local customers, t o keep t o t h e e x i s t i n g s t e r e o t y p e n o t i o n s o f " w e a l t h " o r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n (screens w i t h palaces). O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , these stereotype n o ­ t i o n s m a d e t h e screens v e r y p o p u l a r a n d , p e r h a p s , e v e n led to their being made. T h e photographs are p u t i n a p r o m i n e n t place i n t h e house, especially b y villagers a n d t h e p e o p l e o f s m a l l t o w n s , a n d a r e t r e a t e d as a valuable a n d beautiful "souvenir". S i n c e t h e l a s t w a r t h e screens h a v e b e e n d i s a p p e a r i n g a n d a t t h e m o m e n t o n l y o n e o r t w o p h o t o g r a p h e r s use t h e m , as t h e c u s t o m e r s p r e f e r p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n w i t h a Leica camera against t h e background of the real monastery. Н А Р О Д Н О Е ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ГОД И З Д А Н И Я И С К У С С Т В О ИСКУССТВА XX ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК 1966 РЕЗЮМЕ Р о м а н Р е й н ф у се — ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ В ОБ­ ЛАСТИ НАРОДНОЙ К У Л Ь Т У Р Ы ЛЕМКОВЩИЗНЫ ПО О Б Е И М С Т О Р О Н А М К А Р П А Т Л е м к и , г р у п п а у к р а и н с к и х горцев проживающих по обеим сторонам К а р п а т в д о л и н е Попрада, Ославы и Ляборца, с ч и т а л и с ь б о л ь ш и н с т в о м и с с л е д о в а т е л е й однородной п о к у л ь т у р е г р у п п о й . Н е о с п а р и в а я тезиса о б л и з к о м родстве народной к у л ь т у р ы с е в е р н ы х л е м ков, п р о ж и в а ю щ и х в П о л ь ш е , и ю ж н ы х , п р о ж и в а ю ­ щих в С л о в а к и и , автор в т о ж е в р е м я у к а з ы в а е т на ряд с у щ е с т в у ю щ и х м е ж д у ними р а з л и ч и й . Э т и р а з ­ личия б ы л и вызваны иными условиями жизни, зави­ севшими от того, к к а к о й стране л е м к и п р и н а д л е ж а л и и к к а к и м соседним э т н о г р а ф и ч е с к и м г р у п п а м при­ мыкали. Свой тезис автор отстаивает на основе а н а л и з а о т ­ дельных областей материальной к у л ь т у р ы лемков, а т а к ж е на основе л и т е р а т у р ы предмета, в п е р в у ю ж е очередь на основе с о б с т в е н н ы х исследований с тридцатых годов, к о т о р ы е он п р о д о л ж а е т вести д о сих пор. Существенная разница в ы с т у п а е т у ж е в смысле чувства п р и н а д л е ж н о с т и к о п р е д е л е н н о й г р у п п е , к о ­ торое б ы л о г о р а з д о с и л ь н е е на севере Э т о н а ш л о свое в ы р а ж е н и е в ч е т к о о б о з н а ч е н н о й там г р а н и ц е которая в С л о в а к и и о щ у щ а л а с ь м е н е е я в с т в е н н о ; е с л и дело касается я з ы к а , то и в данном с л у ч а е надо от­ метить, что т о л ь к о на территории П о л ь ш и л е м к и п о л ь з о в а л и с ь своей родной р е ч ь ю . Р а з л и ч и я в а р х и т е к т у р е выступают в р а с п о л о ж е ­ нии с е л е н и й , п л а н и р о в к е домов ( Т а б л . I , карта 11), в с т р о и т е л ь н о м м а т е р и а л е , в терминологии, опреде­ л я ю щ е й о т д е л ь н ы е э л е м е н т ы конструкций, а т а к ж е в д е к о р а т и в н о й росписи срубов, которая на севере з н а ч и т е л ь н о богаче. В общем народное зодчество л е м ­ к о в с т о я л о в ы ш е на п о л ь с к о й территории. Л и ш ь п о с л е второй мировой в о й н ы это и з м е н и л о с ь . В то время как п о л ь с к и е л е м к и в о с с т а н а в л и в а л и свои р а з р у ­ ш е н н ы е войной дома п о старым традиционным о б р а з ­ цам, в С л о в а к и в о з н и к л и н о в ы е ф о р м ы ( и л л . 7). В н у т р е н н я я о т д е л к а домов п о т у и д р у г у ю сторону К а р п а т м а л о рознится. С а м ы м в н у ш и т е л ь н ы м •объек­ том я в л я е т с я т р а д и ц и о н н ы й у л е м к о в с у н д у к д л я х р а н е н и я о д е ж д ы . С т а р и н н ы й тип с у н д у к а в форме с а р к о ф а г а м о ж н о е щ е и теперь встретить на севере. Б о л е е п о з д н и й тип с у н д у к о в с р а с к р а ш е н н ы м цветоч­ н ы м орнаментом встречается по всей Л е м к о в щ и з н е . С у н д у к и эти д е л а л и п о обе стороны К а р п а т и г р а ­ ница н е я в л я л а с ь д л я н и х препятствием. С р а в н и т е л ь н о самая б о л ь ш а я разница замечается в одежде. О д н а к о в этом о т н о ш е н и и труднее всего вести исследования, п о с к о л ь к у традиционные э л е м е н ­ т ы л е м к о в е к о г о наряда почти совершенно исчезают. М н о г и е д е т а л и старого традиционного костюма, х а р а к ­ терного д л я в с е х Л е м к о в , и з м е н и л и с ь под в л и я н и е м 71 �соседних н а ц и о н а л ь н ы х групп. С и л ь н е е всего ска­ з а л о с ь словацкое в л и я н и е , особенное о т р а з и в ш е е с я на женском наряде (короткие юбки, с о р о ч к и с к о р о т к и м и рукавами в сборку). Это в л и я н и е р а с п р о с т р а н я л о с ь в п л о т ь до п о г р а н и ч н ы х территорий П о л ь ш и . П о с к о л ь ­ ку в П о л ь ш е л е м к и д е р ж а л и с ь о б о с о б л е н н е е и х наряд сохранил б о л е е своеобразный х а р а к т е р , п р о х о д я с о б ­ ственную эволюцию. М у ж с к о й костюм по т у и д р у г у ю сторону К а р п а т с о х р а н и л б о л ь ш е о б щ и х э л е м е н т о в . В р е з у л ь т а т е своих и с с л е д о в а н и й автор п р и х о д и т к выводу, что ю ж н а я Л е м к о в щ и з н а , к о т о р а я до пер­ вой мировой в о й н ы б ы л а одним и з самых бедных районов тогдашней В е н г р и и , не п р о я в и л а особой активности в области р а з в и т и я собственной к у л ь т у р ы . Ее традиционные ф о р м ы с о х р а н и л и с ь там в самом примитивном виде; порой и х з а м е н я л и формами, з а и м ­ ствованными у с л о в а ц к о й к у л ь т у р ы , к о т о р ы е к а з а л и с ь ю ж н ы м Л е м к а м достойными п о д р а ж а н и я , п о с к о л ь к у уровень экономической к у л ь т у р ы с л о в а ц к о й деревни стоял выше. П о о т н о ш е н и ю к с е в е р н ы м л е м к а м , ю ж ­ н ы е л е м к и и г р а л и и з в е с т н у ю р о л ь в процессе р а с ­ пространения э л е м е н т о в с л о в а ц к о й к у л ь т у р ы . Н а п о л ь с к о й стороне в л и я н и е З а к а р п а т ь я б ы л о н е ­ велико, к о н т а к т ы с соседним н а с е л е н и е м б ы л и т о ж е н е з н а ч и т е л ь н ы е . Это содействовало развитию соб­ ственной о р и г и н а л ь н о й к у л ь т у р ы . В с е ж е , несмотря на взаимные контакты, в л и я н и е севера на юг б ы л о минимальным. Это о б ъ я с н я е т с я н и з к и м экономическим уровнем л е м к о в с к о й д е р е в н и на п о л ь с к о й стороне, что при ж е л а н и и п о в ы ш а т ь свой ж и з н е н н ы й у р о в е н ь , не в ы з ы в а л о с т р е м л е н и я к п о д р а ж а н и ю . Анна Свионтковска — КСЕНЖАЦКАЯ (ЛОВИЦКИЙ Р А Й О Н ) X I X — X X ВВ. ИЗБА А в т о р , опираясь на а р х и в н ы е м а т е р и а л ы , п а м я т н и ­ ки старины и у с т н ы е беседы, описывает в н у т р е н н и й вид л о в и ц к о й и з б ы и перемены, к о т о р ы е п р о и з о ш л и в течение п о с л е д н и х 150 л е т в связи с м о д е р н и з а ц и е й и урбанизацией деревни. 1) Ьнутренняя планировка: Самой старой п р и м и т и в ­ ной формой ж и л и щ б ы л а однокомнатная изба, к о ­ торую постепенно с т а л и з а м е н я т ь ее в прошлом столетии д в у х к о м н а т н ы е и л и т р е х к о м н а т н ы е п о с т р о й ­ ки — а затем ч е т ы р е х и п я т и к о м н а т н ы е ; и з б ы с т р о и ­ л и с ь по однотрактному п л а н у . 2) Функции отдельных комнат: а) Д в у х к о м н а т н а я изба д е л и л а с ь на две п о л о в и н ы : ч е р н у ю — к у х н ю и ч и с ­ тую — горницу. В ч е т ы р е х к о м н а т н ы х д о м а х была к у х н я , с п а л ь н я д л я х о з я е в , с т о л о в а я и горница, где п р и н и м а л и гостей, б ) Сени, где в X V I I I — X I X вв. п о ­ м е щ а л а с ь печь и х о з я й с т в е н н а я у т в а р ь . П о з д н е е в м н о ­ гокомнатных домах п е ч ь п е р е н е с л и в комнату, сени б ы л и п р о х о д н ы м и и там в ы п о л н я л и ч е р н у ю работу. В настоящее время с е н и скорее всего з а м е н я ю т п е ­ реднюю, в) К л е т ь с т а л и с т р о и т ь в т р е х к о м н а т н ы х домах. К л е т и строят без о к о н ; они с л у ж а т д л я х р а ­ нения продуктов, а т а к ж е к а к с п а л ь н и д л я д е в у ш е к . 3) Очаги и печи. Самыми старыми б ы л и глиняные очаги; в н а ч а л е X I X в. п о я в и л и с ь к и р п и ч н ы е . В к о н ц е X I X в. мы видим у ж е к а ф е л ь н ы е п л и т ы и п е ч и ; в п о с л е д н и е время встречается и паровое о т о п л е н и е . 4) Мебель: В и н в е н т а р я х первой п о л о в и н ы X I X в. у п о м и н а ю т с я : с у н д у к и , кровати, с т о л ы , т а б у р е т ы , т р о й ­ н ы е п о л к и д л я мисок и т а р е л о к , т к а ц к и е станки и п р я л к и . П о з д н е е п о я в л я ю т с я скамьи, б у ф е т ы , а в конце X I X в. — п е р в ы е с т у л ь я . В н а ч а л е X X в. имеют­ ся у ж е серванты, комоды, а затем — п л а т я н ы е ш к а ф ы . В н а ч а л е у п о т р е б л я л а с ь м е б е л ь собственной р а б о т ы , потом с т а л и п о к у п а т ь в Л о в и ч е л и б о у м е с т н ы х д е ­ ревенских с т о л я р о в . М е б е л ь и м е л а свою традицию, свое постоянное место в и з б е ( и л л . 24). Старейшая м е б е л ь б ы л а с о в е р ш е н н о простая, потом ее с т а л и красить и л и п о к р ы в а т ь р е з ь о о й . П о с л е второй м и р о ­ вой войны п р о и з о ш л а с у щ е с т в е н н а я п е р е м е н а : и с ч е з л а традиционная м е о е л ь , к о т о р у ю р а з м е щ а л и в строго установленном традицией порядке, с т а р у ю м е о е л ь заменила современная, городская. 5) Сначала декоративными элементами ловицких ж и ­ лищ были расписные украшения на стенах (конец X V I I I в. — п р и м е р н о д о 1860 г.). Затем вместо н и х п о я в и л и с ь в ы р е з к и из бумаги (1866—1935), свисающие с п о т о л к а „ п а у к и " ( и л л . 35—39), и с к у с с т в е н н ы е ц в е т ы из бумаги и перьев ( и л л . 40). К р о в а т и з а с т и л а л и п о ­ к р ы в а л а м и и п о д у ш к а м и с цветной в ы ш и в к о й и л и к р у ж е в а м и ( и л л . 37). С 1935 г. н а б л ю д а е т с я процесс и з м е н е н и я традицион­ ной к у л ь т у р ы , к о т о р ы й п р о д о л ж а е т с я д о с и х п о р ; р а с т у щ е е в л и я н и е города в ы т е с н я е т п р е ж н и е д е к о ­ ративные элементы ловицкой избы. Вместо бумажных в ы р е з о к на с т е н а х п о я в и л и с ь обои, а п о с л е второй мировой в о й н ы с т е н ы с т а л и к р а с и т ь п о ш а б л о н а м и увешивать семейными фотографиями, а также ре­ продукциями из иллюстрированных ж у р н а л о в . Над кроватями и топчанами с т а л и в е ш а т ь к о в р и к и , п р и ­ о б р е т а е м ы е на я р м а р к а х ( и л л . 44,45). К р о в а т и п о ­ к р ы в а ю т сейчас ф а б р и ч н ы м и о д е я л а м и , а п о д у ш к и расшивают фабричными кружевами. В ы р е з к и делают т о л ь к о д л я г о р о д с к о г о экспорта. Юзеф М и к о л а й т и с ГРАФИЯ — ЯСНОГУРСКАЯ ФОТО­ А в т о р так н а з ы в а е т м о м е н т а л ь н ы е п я т и м и н у т н ы е снимки на ф о н е р а с к р а ш е н н ы х экранов у п о д н о ж и я известного ч е н с т о х о в с к о г о монастыря Ясна Гура. В Ч е н с т о х о в е у ж е в д е в я н о с т ы х г о д а х п р о ш л о г о века р а б о т а л и ф о т о г р а ф и и , н о они о б с л у ж и в а л и . >лько б о л е е с о с т о я т е л ь н ы х к л и е н т о в . К о г д а ж е во зремя первой мировой в о й н ы п о я в и л и с ь ф о т о а п п а р а т ы д л я „ п я т и м и н у т н ы х " снимков, д е й с т в у ю щ и е на о с н о в е т е х ­ ники т а л ь б о т и п и и , с н и м к и - п а м я т к и и з Ченст< х о в ы с т а л и д о с т у п н ы массам, у д о в л е т в о р я я спрос отен тысяч паломников. В н а ч а л е снимки д е л а л и на ф о н е ф р а н ц у з с к и х п е ­ ч а т н ы х декораций, и з о б р а ж а ю щ и х п е й з а ж и (1918), но в 1920 г. И. Р е б е с (Rebes) з а к а з а л п е р в ы й экран с ви­ дом м о н а с т ы р с к о й башни. П о д его в л и я н и е м стал т а к ж е з а к а з ы в а т ь р а с п и с н ы е э к р а н ы С. К о н д а ш е в с к и . А в т о р статьи п и ш е т о д е я т е л ь н о с т и К о н д а ш е в с к о г о , с с ы л а я с ь на его с о х р а н и в ш и е с я ф о т о г р а ф и и ( и л л . 2—5). В статье говорится т а к ж е о р а б о т а х Ф . М а з у р к а , к о ­ т о р ы й в 1929 г. в е р н у л с я из Ф р а н ц и и , где п р о б ы л н е с к о л ь к о л е т и откуда п р и в е з р а з л и ч н ы е образцы, как, например, снимок на ф о н е а в т о м а ш и н ы и л и ж е экран с и з о б р а ж е н и е м с а м о л е т а ( и л л . 11,6). Ч и с л о фотографов неуклонно возрастало и в 1939 г. и х б ы л о у ж е н е с к о л ь к о д е с я т к о в , а п о с л е войны „пятиминутников" стали вытеснять фотографы с „ Л е й ­ к а м и " . Они т а к ж е часто п о л ь з о в а л и с ь реквизитами (расписные э к р а н ы , ч у ч е л а ж и в о т н ы х , ф а н е р н ы е гно­ м ы и т.д. ( и л л . 34—37). П о мнению автора э к р а н ы б е р у т свое н а ч а л о от народных лубочных картинок, п р о д а в а в ш и х с я во время п р е с т о л ь н ы х п р а з д н и к о в и я р м а р о к . К а р т и н к и эти я в л я л и с ь р е к л а м о й б р о д я ч и х л е к а р е й и продавцов с в я т ы х образков. Я р к о р а с п и с а н н ы е и п ы ш н о р а з у к р а ш е н н ы е экра­ н ы у д о в л е т в о р я л и э с т е т и ч е с к и е в к у с ы н а р о д н ы х масс. И н о г д а среди экранов м о ж н о б ы л о н а й т и примитивы, не л и ш е н н ы е своеобразной п р е л е с т и . Р я д о м с экрана­ ми, и з о б р а ж а в ш и м и к у л ь т о в ы е с о о р у ж е н и я Ч е н с т о ­ х о в ы особенно м о н а с т ы р ь ( и л л . 26,27,29,30) п о м е щ а л и э к р а н ы и с д р у г о й т е м а т и к о й : д в о р ц ы , з а м к и , пре­ к р а с н ы е с а д ы с п р у д а м и — ( и л л . 21,22,25) а т а к ж е авто­ м о б и л и и с а м о л е т ы (в п о с л е д н е е в р е м я п о я в и л и с ь р а к е т ы ! ) ( и л л . 12,13,19,20,23) и в то ж е в р е м я виньетки с н а д п и с я м и в р о д е — „ Н е з а б ы в а й м е н я " ( и л л . 31—33). Случаются т а к ж е нетипичные экраны, изображающие скажем, Б е р л и н 1945 г. ( и л л . 28). А в т о р статьи рассматривает творчество о т д е л ь н ы х х у д о ж н и к о в п о р а с п и с ы в а н и ю экранов. Это главным ооразом самоучки, п р и ч е м н е к о т о р ы е и з н и х обладают известными знаниями в области живописи. Самой интересной л и ч н о с т ь ю я в л я е т с я Т . 3 . Бараньеки, фо­ т о г р а ф и х у д о ж н и к экранов, р а б о т а ю щ и й п о сей день. О н с н а б ж а е т э к р а н а м и своей р а б о т ы ф о т о г р а ф о в ряда п о л ь с к и х городов ( и л л . 20—30}. Э к р а н ы р а с п и с ы в а ю т м а с л я н ы м и красками на л ь н я ­ ном п о л о т н е р а з м е р о м 2,5 A 3 м. Б р е м я от времени их п е р е к р а ш и в а ю т и р е т у ш и р у ю т , м е н я я т а к ж е дату. р а з в и т и ю э к р а н н о й ж и в о п и с и спосооствовал факт, что, в в и д у к о н к у р е н ц и и среди ф о т о г р а ф о в , к л и е н т ы о о ы ч н о в ы б и р а л и т е х и з н и х , ч ь и э к р а н ы отличались особой к р а с и в о с т ь ю и Э ф ф е к т н о с т ь ю . Поэтому все стремились к тому, чтоиы э к р а н ы удовлетворяли в к у с ы к л и е н т о в , о т в е ч а л и ш а о л о н н ы м понятиям за­ житочности и л и общественного положения. г После 1945 г. становится все м е н ь ш е экранов. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU wydawane P.P. WYDAWNICTWA SZTUKI PAN przez: ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE BIULETYN HISTORII S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 100 s t r . dużego f o r m a t u , o k o ł o 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 24 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 48 zł, r o c z n a — 96 zł. POLSKA SZTUKA LUDOWA, k w a r t a l n i k , 64 s t r . dużego f o r m a t u , b o g a t y materiał i l u s t r a c y j n y . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 3(i zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 170 s t r . d r u k u , około 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , około 130 s t r . d r u k u , l i c z n e p r z y k ł a d y C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. Wszystkie meracie. czasopisma nabywać WARUNKI można regularnie jedynie w nutowe. prenu­ PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ S Z T U K I LUDOWEJ" C e n a p r e n u m e r a t y : półrocznie zł 36, r o c z n i e zł 72. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są d o 10 d n i a miesiąca poprzedzającego okres p r e n u m e r a t y . P r e n u m e r a t ę n a k r a j d l a c z y t e l n i k ó w i n d y w i d u a l n y c h p r z y j m u j ą urzędy pocztowe oraz listonosze. C z y t e l n i c y i n d y w i d u a l n i mogą również dokonywać wpłat na k o n t o P K O N r 1-6-100020 — C e n t r a l a K o l p o r t a ż u P r a s y i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch" W a r s z a w a , u l . W r o n i a 23. W s z y s t k i e i n s t y t u c j e p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne mogą z a m a w i a ć p r e n u m e ­ ratę w y ł ą c z n i e /.a p o ś r e d n i c t w e m O d d z i a ł ó w i D e l e g a t u r „ R u c h " . P r e n u m e r a t ę n a zagranicę, która j e s t o 40% droższa — p r z y j m u j e B i u r o Kolportażu W y d a w n i c t w Z a g r a n i c z n y c h „Ruch" Warszawa, u l . W r o n i a 23, teł. 20-46-88, k o n t o P K O N r 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ E g z e m p l a r z e n u m e r ó w z d e a k t u a l i z o w a n y c h można n a b y w a ć w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m P r a s y A r c h i w a l n e j „ R u c h " , W a r s z a w a , u l . N o w o m i e j s k a n r 15/17, k o n t o P K O N r 114-6-700041 V I I Oddział M i e j s k i W a r s z a w a . A k t u a l n e n u m e r y czasopism I n s t y t u t u S z t u k i P A N posiada Rozpowszechniania W y d a w n i c t w N a u k o w y c h P A N w Pałacu i N a u k j w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury Z a k ł a d y G r a f i c z n e „ T a m k a " Zaikład N r 2 W - w a , Podchorążych 39. Z a m . 893. P a p . i l u s t r . k l . I I I , 120 g A l + k a r t o n biały k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1300 egz. M-7 Wkładką kolorową w y k . D r u k a r n i a „ Z n a k " , W a r s z a w a , F o k s a l 11. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/09fa1bb39f6e4dbd1d03f09cc183c445.pdf ea05df520fc20b0bb4b01461a8938ce5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4924 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4563 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1966 t.20 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1966 t.20 z.2; s.132-135 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text sze kręgi (było to j u ż k i l k a k r o t n i e wzmiankowane w „ K r o n i c e " ) . 8 marca w Koniakowie otwarte zostało Muzeum Koronkarstwa Bes­ kidzkiego. Organizatorami s ą : Ce­ pelia, oddział w Katowicach oraz Wydz. K u l t . PRN. W chacie koronczarka z m a r ł e j przed trzema laty, M a r i i Gwarkowej, zgromadzono w i e ­ le koronek, wykonanych przez n i ą oraz przez jej uczennice. Pokazano z a r ó w n o tradycyjne „czółka" i k o ­ szule kobiece, j a k w s p ó ł c z e s n e adaptacie haftu c i e s z y ń s k i e g o serwetki kołnierzyki,, obrusy i t p . W roku ' b i e ż ą c y m przewiduje się otwarcie w i e l u n o w y c h izb regio­ nalnych na terenie w o j . k r a k o w ­ skiego: w Zakopanem - dla Pod­ hala, w Łopusznej — dla okolic Czorsztyna, w Czorsztynie — dla Spiszą, w Zubrzycy G ó r n e j — dla Orawy, w Rabce — dla G o r c ó w , w Starym Sączu — dla Z i e m i S ą d e e kiei i na obrzeżu ieziora w Tresnej - dla Żywiecczyzny. - •12 marca otwarto w Białowieży Muzeum K u l t u r y B i a ł o w i e s k i e j , za­ łożone staraniem B i a ł o r u s k i e g o T o warzyswa Kulturalnego. C z ł o n k o w i e Towarzystwa zgromadzili d r o g ą pe­ netracji terenowych ponad 300 eks­ p o n a t ó w . R e p r e z e n t u j ą one wszyst­ kie n a j w a ż n i e j s z e działy ludowej, k u l t u r y białoruskiej na terenie Pol­ ski. P r z e w a ż a ceramika, tkactwo dekoracyjne i hafciarstwo, frag­ menty stroju, meble i s p r z ę t gospo­ darski. Prasa z a r ó w n o k u l t u r a l n a , j a k co­ dzienna, d y s k u t o w a ł a ostatnio sze­ roko zagadnienia ochrony budow­ nictwa drewnianego. W y s u n i ę t o w i e ­ le propozycji, dotyczących tworzenia m u z e ó w skansenowskich w r ó ż n y c h częściach k r a j u . N a j w i ę c e j uwagi poświęcono kontrowersyjnemu i nie r o z w i ą z a n e m u ostatecznie projekto­ w i zgrupowania w Rzeszowskiem w j e d n y m miejscu kilkudziesięciu cerkiewek k t ó r e D r z e n i e s i o n o hv z różnych mieiscowości w o i rze­ szowskiego i wschodniej części k r a - P O L I S QUARTERLY PUBLISHED Wiele pisano o muzeach skansenowskich na terenie w o j . krakowskiego, gdzie w g projektu W o j e w ó d z k i e g o U r z ę d u Konserwacji Z a b y t k ó w p o w s t a ć ma centralne muzeum w o j e w ó d z k i e oraz wiele m u z e ó w regionalnych umiejscowio­ nych g ł ó w n i e na Podtatrzu: w Za­ kopanem, Ł o p u s z n e j , Niedzicy. Proiekt ten D o d o b n i e i a k inne i n i c i a t y w v - zmierzaiace do stworzenia m u z e ó w skansenowskich no w To¬ r u n i u C7V Przerrwślu nip ws7pr_ł ieszcze w stadium realizaeii Nie ustalono ieszcze n a w e t ^ k o n k r e t n y c h lokalizari zamarzanych rniTzeńw Ciosy nrasy 7e^^ iLnieTzn n i ! ZJb^n riz^Tmia z a r ^ rwania ™ T h <=^nS,nńw i = £ r T z ^ r T n l ^ ^ ^ Q Kowskiego. n W o j e w ó d z k i Dom K u l t u r y w Bia­ ł y m s t o k u w s p ó l n i e ze Spółdzielczym Zrzeszeniem C h a ł u p n i k ó w i Wy­ t w ó r c ó w L u d o w y c h ogłosił konkurs na m a l o w a n k i i w y c i n a n k i ludowe z pow. Bielsk Podlaski i Hajnówka. Celem k o n k u r s u jest znalezienie po­ staci, w k t ó r e j w y c i n a n k i i malo­ w a n k i m o g ł y b y służyć do dekoracji wsDÓłczesnvch wnętrz (świetlice szkoły biura) l u b iako oamiatki z Białostocczyzny. Q zly stan z a b y t k ó w architektury l u dowej zachowanych jeszcze w terpTn p K o n k u r s na zabawki ludowe, zorganizowany przez Muzeum i m . Wł. Orkana w Rabce, został rozstrzyg­ n i ę t y w l u t y m . W konkursie wzięło u d z i a ł 40 u c z e s t n i k ó w z p o w i a t ó w N o w y Targ, Sucha, L i m a n o w a i M y ­ ślenice. N a d e s ł a n o o g ó ł e m 291 ekspo­ n a t ó w , w ś r ó d k t ó r y c h szczególnie intereśuiace bvłv wózki kołyski ptaszki oraz r ó ż n e zabawki rucho­ me Trzv równorzędne nierwsze nagrody orzyznano J a n o w i Rabcia kowi i Stanisławowi S t o ż k o w i T p o rebv Wielkiei I w T t a L ™ i Adamowi K c t l r i J ^ k ^ y T ^ t Ponadto n m 7 ™ n 7 n Z , ™SrńH rJrnTirh dyfl^ó trzećT | T T SP^IP W W L M N . I H ^ P regionalne z ^ b W Pamiątki Redakcja „ W i e ś c i " ogłosiła dla młodzieży szkolnej konkurs pn. „Szukamy skarbów Tysiąclecia". W ramach konkursu m ł o d z i e ż pod o p i e k ą nauczycieli wyszukuje, o p i ­ suje i zabezpiecza obiekty znajdu­ j ą c e się w najbliższej okolicy. We H F O BY THE ART INSTITUTE SUMMARY A n n a K u n c z y ń s k a - I r ac k a - PAINTINGS CZĘSTOCHOWA FROM Pictures painted on linen, paper, t i n sheet and. not so frequently, on wood, are the most typical of Polish folk painting. They were s t i l l being painted up t i l l the be­ ginning of the 20th century and quite a large number of them can s t i l l be found i n r u r a l cottages and churches. This k i n d of painting was for a long t i m e only of mar­ ginal interest to researchers studying folk art and for this reason w e do not possess much knowledge about i t so far. To make a very general classification, there are three kinds of these paintings, namely, (1) paintings produced in „series", as i t were, i n large centres associated w i t h 132 wsiach są to przede wszystkim przedmioty z zakresu sztuki i kul­ t u r y materialnej ludowej. Mają one b y ć w m i a r ę m o ż n o ś c i gromadzone w szkolnych „ k ą c i k a c h muzealnych". OF Wydz. K u l t . PRN, Pow. Dom Kult. i Miejska B i b l . Publ. w Lubaczowie ogłosiły konkurs p n . „ S z t u k a ludowa w powiecie lubaczowskim". Na kon­ kurs przyjmowane są eksponaty r e p r e z e n t u j ą c e wszystkie dziedziny ludowej twórczości, współczesne i zabytkowe oraz prace plastyczne amatorów. W l u t y m o t w a r t a b y ł a w salach Domu K u l t u r y w Łodzi wystawa pn. „ S i e r a d z k i e o b r z ę d y i zabawki ludowe", przeniesiona z Muzeum w Sieradzu. (Por. „ K r o n i k a " w nr 4/1965). Wystawa pn. „Rzeźba ludowa z Zawidza", o t w a r t a 11 marca w Domu C h ł o p a w Warszawie, czynna b y ł a do k o ń c a m i e s i ą c a . Organizato­ rem wystawy była Spółdzielnia „ G r o m a d a " . Pokazano przeszło 100 rzeźb w drewnie w y k o n a n y c h w cią­ gu ostatniego r o k u przez rzeźbiarzy z Zawidza: Wincentego i Jana Kra­ jewskich oraz H e n r y k a Wierzchow­ skiego Po raz Dierwszy wziął udział w w y s t a w i e m ł o d y r z e ź b i a r z Sta­ n i s ł a w Wierzbicki Pokazane rzeźby r e o r e z e n t o w a ł y n ó z i o m dosvć wy­ soki i w y r ó w n a n y . L OF T H E P O L I S H K R T A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES ARTICLES w e l l k n o w n places of pilgrimage. O w i n g to the long ex­ istence of these centres, the m u t u a l influences exerted on each other by the painters w o r k i n g there, as well as the fact that the vocation of painter and k i n d of work­ manship is often passed on f r o m father to son, each of these centres has its own characteristic „style" of pain­ ting. (2) Paintings mostly done by artists i n small towns, bearing the character of a craft to some extent. (3) Pain­ tings done by self-taught artists i n villages or small towns, w h i c h can be distinguished by their n r i m i t i v i s m and naivete of form. This article is about paintings of the first kind, which are most numerous i n Poland and therefore provide the most material for research. The authoress took Często­ chowa as the basic subject of her investigations. This is �. famous place of pilgrimage, w h i c h has existed since the 5th century and is also w i d e l y k n o w n i n neighbouring :ountries. Both historical information and analysis of the laintings that have been preserved seem to indicate that he largest number of pictures embracing the largest i res (almost the whole of Poland see map) as regards iistribution are precisely those painted i n or connec;ed w i t h Częstochowa. A p a r t f r o m the C z ę s t o c h o w a p a i n ings i t has been nnssible to distinguish several more groups of local scope, w h i c h have not yet been thoroI P M V investigated (turn i n smith-eastern Poland and one n Silesia) Archive materials testify to the fact that the folk painting centre i n C z ę s t o c h o w a has existed since the 17th century at least. I n that period, the paintings were done both by painters i n monasteries - w h o do not seem to have contributed i n any i m p o r t a n t w a y to the development of the centre - and by lay painters, some of w h i c h were folk painters. A b o u t 1718, a painters' guild was set up i n Częstochowa, w h i c h existed about two hundred years. The m a i n m o t i v e for setting up this guild, i n i t i a t e d by the Paulist Fathers of the Jasna G ó r a Monastery — custodians of the miracle picture — was to ensure that this craft should be maintained at a high level. The struggle between the g u i l d — controlled by censors from the monastery — and the painters, w h o tried to produce the largest possible number of p a i n ­ tings at the cost of good w o r k m a n s h i p and sold t h e m without the required evaluation by the guild, went on unceasingly d u r i n g the w h o l e of the 18th century. This is nroved hv the guild rules w h i r h were changed and broadened several times I n the 19th century the role of the guild was m n r h smaller and i n this neried friar ticularlv m i n the? sevenHesim-ohahlv the most nrtmi t ve folk naintings w r . nrnd.nced We J w ™ , m n J - t h a n 250 names of na^ end nf t l , P Iflłh e e n f n r T a n T ^ n the IQth nZnfZŹ manv of them w e r e , f r n f ^ l i « V h n had n ^ t i f e d this ^ , ^ t for se^L-Il^ ffPner^tionT i t „ I w d d ™ t 1 1 l l se[l t h l T r ^ i ^ ^ It „r ~ r f v ! ^ P frI r l L S i ™ * I c ~fd +t •f + F °„J™ f^ h f! ^° ^ 3 r ° ™ p ™ P " Jhol^LleTrom 1 Z £Jm t th ™ « ve^dorst Jnd 1 °™ ^ ™ „ ^ f P m a n m z o t 0 w s o l d e i c r e s t 0 lJ 1 ( S W e in t h ! I m ^ f ?r 7 l e m e S ? e P i n t e r cottage to cot- other centresTalsf purchased pictures to The paintings from Częstochowa, w i t h a l l the charac­ teristics of folk art, although differentiated as to form which is quite understandable i f one bears i n m i n d the 300 years existence of the centre — and meeting the requirements and taste of the purchasers w h o were f r o m various social classes, have much i n common as regards formal features, to w h i c h the authoress devotes special attention. The folk artists of C z ę s t o c h o w a usually used stencils for copying the basic compositional elements of the pictures. These stencils were passed down from gene­ ration to generation, and also lent and exchanged bet­ ween the painters. This meant that the composition of the same iconograohic subieets was verv similar i n va rious periods and w i t h various techniques and w o r k ­ manship. The formal differences can be seen above a l l i n the elaboration of details for i t was almost onlv here that the nainter could exoress his individual taste Rnt the oainters d i d not disolav m Z Z a S n . 1 this respect and never signed t h e i r w o r k The C z ę s t o c h o w a paintings were n o t ' dated by the artists; the dates of some of them can be established by the date of purchase i f i t is k n o w n ; sometimes the date can be established by iconographic features. The exam­ ples k n o w n to us are most probably not older than the t u r n of the 18th and 19th centuries, the great majority being 19th century. The pictures on paper that have been preserved were painted as late as the second half of that century. The subjects of the paintings were ex­ clusively religious. They are copies of the most popular miracle oictures and scurotures of central Poland above a l l of course the Częstochowa Madonna and also the most nonular saints Thp- nainters cnnieH thoir nirtnrps directly from devotional engravings T o m e of them of These engravings were also produced i n c l ę s t o c h o w a ! The authoress distinguishes six basic f o r m a l kinds of folk pictures from Częstochowa, attempting to arrange them i n chronological order to some extent, and pointing to the associations between some of t h e m and folk pain­ tings from other centres. Tancred Banateanu, Jadwiga Formagiu WOMEN'S BLOUSES. F R O M STUDIES O N R U M A N I A N F O L K COSTUMES Rumanian folk blouses have kept their traditional appearance for a relatively long time, although greatly differentiated i n various regions. A thorough analysis of the cut of women's blouses has made i t possible to distinguish t w o basic types: I poncho and I I - gathered (fig. 1). There are different versions of these t w o basic types. I - the poncho type of blouse - the front and the back are cut out of one piece of material w i t h an opening for the head and the sleeves are sewn i n at right angles. A l l versions of the poncho blouse are w o r n i n countries neighbouring on Rumania. I n Rumania, these blouses are the oldest and are w o r n for w o r k . Three versions of this blouse have been distinguished: a) - w i t h sleeves made from straight pieces of material and sewn to the bodice w i t h o u t gathering (fig. 2) — provinces of Suceava, Bacau Bucharest Oltenia; b) — blouses w i t h sleeves gathered i n t o the bodice (fig. 4) - i n the localities of Arad Fagaras Persani Maramures Oas This version is w o r n i n the U k r a i n e beyond the Carpathians; c) bodice gathered into yoke of poncho cut Gathered slee­ ves (fig 5) Oltenia. Type I I - Blouse made of t w o pieces, front and back, w i t h sleeves gathered at neck. This type of blouse is w o r n a l l over the country (fig. 6, - map). Version a) gathered blouse w i t h o u t shoulder band (fig. 6a, 7 (b) blouse w i t h pseudo shoulder band the sleeve being lengthened w i t h a square piece of m a t e r i a l („altita") and sewn to the bodice. I n today's version of this blouse, the square piece is of a different material than that of w h i c h the whole blouse is made, c) blouse w i t h a different cut of the sleeve w h i c h is made f r o m a triangular piece of material twisted spirally (fig. 6c, 9) — localities of. V r a n eea Rran Fagaras Muscel The most common is the eathered blouse w i t h o u t shoulder band. The introduction of the altita" is the result of Slav influences. On the other hand the poncho type, the oldest i n the w o r l d , was also the first tvne of Rumanian hlouse and the oth¬ er kinds WOTrdeveloped from this type The process of development w e n t on, one version t u r n i n g into another under the influence of „ t h e fashion'.' I n cutting out the blouses, the material was general­ l y cut along the thread. Another feature was rational utilization of material. The neck finishing usually covers the base of the neck. A characteristic feature is gathering at the neck, both front and back and also the sleeves, by drawing a thread through the material (fig. 11a). I n some localities the blouses have a sort of stand-up collar made by the gathering w h i c h is covered w i t h embroidery (fig. l i b ) . I n some versions the gathered ma­ terial is sewn into a band. Square insets are sewn into the under-arms. The slee­ ves of the blouses are always long, sometimes gathered at the w r i s t . The traditional costumes are disappearing as a re­ sult of the urbanization of the r u r a l areas. Today the blouses are often made from factory made cotton ma­ terial, i n a w a y resembling the blouses w o r n i n the towns. The blouses were decorated w i t h hand embroidery and sometimes woven patterns. The composition of the orna­ mentation is strictly adapted to the cut of the blouse. The seams are emphasized w i t h decorative stitching. The fronts a n d sleeves of the blouses are richly ornamented, and so are the collars and cuffs. The embroidery is clo­ sely associated w i t h the k i n d of cut. I n blouses of the poncho" type there is an embroidered band on the shoul­ der along the'seam where the sleeve is sewn to the bo­ dice (fig. 15a) sometimes lengthened into an embroidered smiaire (fig 15hl Tn blouses of the gathered tvne the ma¬ n bandof Z a l Z o n runs horizontally below the shoulders. There is a great wealth of embroidery on the sleeves • The predominating motifs i n the r i c h patterns orna­ menting the blouses are plant and animal ones and also human figures w h i c h are very geometrized. 133 �Z o f i a C i e ś l a - R e i n f u s s o w a - COTTAGE W I T H UPPER ROOM I N M Y Ś L E N I C E D I S T R I C T During inventory w o r k i n 1965, a cottage w i t h an up­ per r o o m (known as „ w y ż k a " i n Polish) was discovered in the village of B o g d a n ó w k a , M y ś l e n i c e District. This cottage, b u i l t i n the year 1800, has a layout w i t h a l l the rooms opening out from one corridor and comprises three parts: 1) the residential part consisting of the l i v i n g room and the „ b a k e r y " , 2) a connecting corridor b u i l t onto the „ b a k e r y " and stables, 3) y a r d w i t h entrace gates to which the barn bay is joined. The last element, of the building is a coach-house. The cottage is b u i l t of thick logs w i t h fishtail" joints I n the residential p a r t rtf the e n ł t a e e the logs arp r u t differentlv Thp unlit roof is of rafter construction As refflrds the interior the b a k P r v " is narticularlv i n t e m t i M i t T w m m . t a rhtmnev npscri hi n a th e ootte ep i'n detail thp a,,thn re^s draws' soTrial »ttervHon t ^ t h p characteriltic , Z r room h i the Uvine rnnm of the t v n J . k n o w n as w v f k a " T i ^ t e r e r W n thTrnrrvrter hv M i m h 3 a ladder to the room and w a l k i n g over the w i l i n g of the .bakeFurther investigation revealed that cottages w i t h an upper room were traditional i n this locality, the only difference being that, contrary to the cottage discussed here, the upper rooms were i n farms comprising seve­ ral buildings. The cottages w i t h the „ w y ż k a " i n M y ś l e n i c e District, like those i n Orawa, are not associated w i t h one particular type of interior, nor have they any dis­ tinct k i n d of construction. The discovery of the cottage w i t h the upper room i n this locality indicates that such cottages were not l i m i ­ ted to Orawka and Podhale (see map). There are two basic types of cottages w i t h the „ w y ż k a " : 1) cottages With an upper room w h i c h is entered from a balcony, which are typical of Orawa buildings. 2) cottages w i t h an upper room under the roof ((the type commonly met i n the Podhale region). The entrance to the upper room through the attic as i n the cottage i n M y ś l e n i c e Dis­ trict is also found i n the centre of Orawa and i n Podhale. Documents from the 17th and 18th century lead us to the assumption that the original cottages w i t h the „ w y ż k a " d i d not have a balcony leading to the room this being a later development of this k i n d of cottage! Joanna Maciejewska-Pavkovic A R T I N V I L L A G E S OF T H E B I A Ł Y S T O K RITUAL REGION The authoress gives a review of r i t u a l a r t i n the B i a ­ łystok region i n connection w i t h the exhibition organi­ zed i n the autumn of 1965 and also on the basis of mo­ re comprehnsive material collected by the authoress her­ self i n this region. The process of the disappearance of rites is taking place more slowly i n this region than elsewhere, although the old beliefs i n magic on w h i c h they are based have disappeared altogether. The greatest wealh of r i t u a l art is connected w i t h Christmas, when the rooms of cottages are decorated w i t h the so-called spiders (hung f r o m the ceiling) papercut curtains o r paper curtains (in later years) w i t h pa­ inted patterns. The ears of corn w h i c h formerly stood i n the room have been replaced by the Christmas tree. I t is a general custom for carol singers to carry a star, which is i n various forms presented here by the autho­ ress (fig. 12). Another „.prop" of the carol singers is the crib n a t i v i t y puppet show, w h i c h is fixed to a pole. I n some parts of the region, the r i t e k n o w n as „The Herods" is practiced. This is a spectacle i n w h i c h the actors appear i n masks and costumes. I n many villages, the „ H e r o d s " are accompanied by the „ g o a t " (fig. 4, 5). There was also a custom of dressing up as ..gypsies", w h i c h was connected w i t h New Year's. Eve i n the south of the voivodship and w i t h Shrovetide i n other parts of the region. I n some places the masqueraders include the figures of „ t h e bear" and the „old men of straw" - two men bound together w i t h straw - w h o dance under the windows of the cottages. A m o n g the Shrovetide games, there was the custom of carrying round the „Old man and old woman (two life-size puppets placed on a cart­ wheel). This custom is not met w i t h anywhere else. New Year's customs include special ritual cakes, w h i c h are a dominating accent i n the New Year rites There is also the custom of baking special cakes to greet the Spring, for instance, the ones k n o w n as „ S k o w r o n k i " (Swallows) (fig. 8) and so-called stork's feet (fig. 10, 11). Then there are rites for ensuring a good harvest, w h i c h include the baking of cakes k n o w n as „Korowaj" on St. George's Day, when they are carried round the fields (fig. 16). The Easter rites include the blessing of palms on Palm Sunday (fig. 6, 7) and the decoration of eggs (Pi­ sanki). A m o n g Catholics and members of the Orthodox Church, there is the custom of blessing wreaths of green­ ery, w h i c h are used for incensing frightened children or cows that do not give m i l k , etc. The cycle of magic rites for a good harvest is crowned by the so-called „ P r z e p i ó r k a " , w h i c h is a bunch of ears of corn tied at the top and decorated w i t h flowers. Before the First W o r l d War, the harvest home wre­ ath was only made where there were manors, b u t every­ where, the harvesters brought the farmer a bunch of ears of corn decorated w i t h flowers, that was known as the „ p l o n " (harvest). The same name is given to the bouquet blessed on Assumption Day, which is made ears of corn and leaves of various crops and gar­ den plants (fig. 3). As regards wedding rites, the e x h i b i t i o n only shows the wedding cake k n o w n as „ K o r o w a j " (fig. 16-18) which is m a i n l y practised i n the eastern regions, but goes beyond the western boundery o f Byelorussian settlement. I n various localities there are different ceremonies con­ nected w i t h the „ K o r o w a j " . The t r a d i t i o n a l „Korowaj" is gradually disappearing (it is being replaced by the modern wedding cake) and is only found today i n the eastern border zone. To sum up, the authoress of the article says that: 1) local research indicates the use of the same ritual ob­ jects by the Polish and Byelorussian population, the only difference being that the Polish population observe the custom of baking r i t u a l cakes i n the Spring. 2) Similarities indicate m u t u a l borrowings and the com­ mon agrarian origin of the customs. 3) I n many cases the objects used are identical but the r i t u a l interpretation is different. 4) Often, objects used for s i m i l a r functions differ in both groups, either i n f o r m or i n ornamentation. 5) The gradual disappearance of ritual a r t is connected w i t h the diminishing area i n w h i c h the rites are obser­ ved. The least difference occurs where groups of population of different origin have m i x e d w i t h each other. �n O J I b C K O E KBAPTAJIbHblH j\fa 2 2KYPHAJI H f l P O f l H O E M3flABAEMbIÍ5 H C K Y C C T B O M H C T M T y T O M M C K y C C T B A ÜOJIbCKOK A K A f l E M J l H TOA M3flAHMH X X HAYK 1966 PE3KDME A H Ha CKAJI KyHHMHtCKa-MpauKa — HEHCTOXOB- 2CMBOnMCB K c a M O M y TMnMHHOMy B M # y n o j i b C K o ü H a p o f l H o ü JKWBortMCM n p i i H a f l J i e H t a T K a p i M H b i H a xojicTe, H a 6yMare, Ha M e T a j u i e , p e s t e H a ftocKe. E m e B n a n a n e X X B e x a n w c a j i w c b T a K n e K a p T M H W M M H o r a e M3 HMX R O CMX n o p c o x p a H M J i M c t B # e p e B e H C K n x M 3 6 a x M K o c T e j i a x . ,ZI.ojiroe BpeMH M C C J i e f l a B a T e j i M H a p o f l H o r o T B o p n e c T B a n e o6paniaJin BHHMaHHH H a 3 T 0 T 0 p O f l a JKMBO'nMCb M nosroMy o H e í i MMeeTCH Majio c B e / r e H H Í í . 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PaSoTaa roflaMM B STMX C T a p b i x i i e H T p a x , x y f l O J K H M K n 0Ka3biBajin flpyr H a flpyra B 3 a M M H o e B j m a H n e , M3 n o KOJieHMH B n o K O J i e H H e H a c J i e A O B a j í n CBOIO npocpeccMio M M a c T e p c K M e , BBMfly n e r o c o 3 f l a B a j i c H x a p a K T e p H b i í i fljia flaHHoro i i e H T p a x y j r n a f e c T B e H H M í t „cTMJib". 2) T B O p H e c T B O n o J i y p e M e c J i e H H ü r o x a p a K T e p a , rjiaaHblM 0 6 p a 3 D M x y ^ O J K H M K O B M a j i e H b K M X M e c T e n e K . 3) T B O p H e C T B O X y f l O J K H M K O B - C a M O y H e K M3 flepeBHH MJIM M a J i e H b K w x r o p o f l K O B — o T J i w H a i o m e e c H npMMHTWBHOCTbK) M H a M B H O Ü QpOpMOÜ. B H a c T O H i n e M C T a T b e pasSwpaeTca n e p B b i ü , caMwil M H o r o H M C J i e H H b i i í B i l o j i b i u e BMfl K a p T M H , K O T O p b i ü j i e r n e Bcero M 3 y H H T b . OCHOBHOH T e M o í i M c c J i e f l O B a H M Í i aBTopa Bbijia H e H C T o x o B a , K O T o p a a H a H M H a a c X V B. HBJIHCTCH MeCTOM n a j I O M H M H C C T B a , U I H p O K O H 3 B e C T H b I M B I I O J I b L U e M coceflHwx c r p a H a x . P a B H O M C T o p M n e c K M e s a r a u e , K a K M aHajiM3 c o x p a H K B i i i M x c a o S t e K T O B y K a 3 b i B a i O T H a TO, HTO c a M a a M H o r o H w c j i e H H a H r p y n n a K a p T M H , B C T p e M a i o m a i o a c a n y T b JIH H e n o B c e í i T e p p M T o p M U I l o j i b u i n : ( c p . K a p T y ) , C B H 3 a H a HiaeHHO c HeHCTOXOBOtí. Hapn^y c H e H C T O x o B C K o ñ JKHBOnMCbK) flO CMX n O p MOJKHO 6bIJIO B b l f l e j I M T b H e C K O J i b K O eme Mano M C C J i e f l O B a H H b i x r p y n n M e c T H o r o x a p a K T e p a (flBe B w r o - B O C T O H H o í i ü o j i b m e M o ^ H y B C M JI63MM). 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OSbiKHOBeHHO x y flOHÍHMKM C3MM H e 3aHMMajIMCb n p O f l a J K e í í CBOMX K a p T M H . B HeHCTOXOBe c y m e c T B O B a j i a OTflejibHan r p y n n a j i a B O H HMKOB, o S c j i y J K M B a B m M X n a j I O M H M K O B . J l a B O H H M K M OnTOM n o K y n a j i M y xyfloscHMKOB KapTMHbi fljia CBOMX JI3BOK, (MHorfla 3TOM T o p r o B J i e í í 3 a H M M a j i w c b aceHbi x y f l O J K H M K O B ) , a TaKHte Bejín ToproBjno, CTpaHCTBya n o flepeBHaM. B H e n c T O x o B e s a n a c a j i M C b T a K j K e KapTMHaMM ToproBnbi M3 flpyrMX MeCTHOCTeM. B r p O p M a j I b H O M OTHOUieHMM H e H C T O X O B C K M e K a p T M H b l •5bijiM flOBOJibHo p a 3 H o o 6 p a 3 H b i . 9 T O B n o j i H e n o H a T H o , ecJiM JipMHaTb B O BHMMaHMe, HTO MCCTHblM XyflOJKeCTBeHHblíí neHTp cymecTByeT 300 J i e T M y f l O B j i e T B o p a e T BKycM jiioflefí, npMHaflJiejKam.Mx K pa3JiMHHMM oSmecTBeBHbiM KJiaccaM. BMecTe c T e M K a p T M H b i 3TM MMMOT MHoro o5in,MX c p o p M a j i b H b i x nepT, KOTopbie aBTOp nofflpo6H:o paccMaTpMBaeT. H a p o f l H b i e M a c T e p a HeHCTOXOBbi, K a K npaBMJio, npMSerajiM K T p a o p a p e T a M , c noMoixrbio K O T o p b i x K o r n i p o B a j i M OCHOBHOM p M c y H O K KOMnoaMqMM. TpadpapeTbi 3TM nepexoflMJiM M3 n o K O J i e H M a B n o K O J i e H n e ; x y j j o j K H M K H o 6 M e HMBajiMCb MMM M c f l a j i J K M B a j i M flpyr «pyry, BBMfly M e r o p e a a K U M a K O M n o 3 M q n M O^HOM M TOÜ ? K e M K O H o r p a q > M H e c KOVI TeMaTMKM Sbijia B p a 3 J i M H H b i e nepnoflbi B p e M e H M M B ) a 3 H b i x M a c T e p c K M x oneHb c x o j K e í i . <3>opMajibHbie OTJIMHMH npejKfle Bcero B M C T y n a j i M B jreTajiax, M6O o 6 p a 6 0 T K a fleT a j i e ü flaBajia x y a o a s H M K a M n y T b JIM H e e f l M H C T B e H H y í o B 0 3 M 0 J K H 0 C T b n p O H B M T b CBOM HaKJIOHHOCTM. HaffiO O T M e TMTb, HTO McnojiHMTeji'M o6pau;aJiM Mano B H H M a i m a H a MHfflMBMflyajIbHbie OCOSeHHOCTH OBOMX paGoT M HMKOTfla MX H e n o f l n M C b í B a j i M , a T a K a c e H e flaTMpoBajiM. B H e K O T O P M X cjiynaax MOJKHO y c i a H O B M T b B p e M a noHBJieHMa K a p T M H M H a o c H O B a H M i i flaTbi n p M o S p e T e H M a ee, a M H o r a a H a OCHOBaHMM MKOHOrpadpMM. M S B e C T H b i e l i a M K a p T M H b l no B c e ü B e p o H T H O c ™ 6 b i j i M H a n w c a H b i H e n o 3 J K e KOHn;a X V ' I I B . Hanajia X I X B., a S o j i b i n M i i c T B O HanwcaHo B X I X B. CoxpaHMBuiMeca KapTMHbl Ha SyMare flaTMpoBaHbi fla>Ke BTOPOÍÍ nOJIOBMHOM X I X B . T e M a T M K a K a p T M H Swjia MCKJiioHMTejibHO p e j i M r M 0 3 H o r o x a p a K T e p a . M3o6pajKajiMCb nonyjiapHeMmMe B IíeHTpaJibH o i í üojibme HyflOTBopHbie o 6 p a 3 a M o K y j i b n T y p b i , npejKñe B c e r o H e H C T o x o B C K a a E o r o M a T e p b , a T a K J K e Ha¡M6oJiee nonyjiapHbie B Hapofle CBHTbie. HenocpeflCTBeHHbiMM o 6 p a 3 i ; a M M 6 b i J i M B nepByio onepeab rpaBiopbi pejiMr M 0 3 H o r o c o f l e p j K a H M a ( M H o r a a n a c T M H H o H a p o f l H b i e ) , no B O T O p b l M pMCOBajIMCb T p a C p a p e T b I . T p a B I O p b l 3TM T a K H í e M3rOTOBJiajIMCb B M e H C T O X O B e . K p o M e T o r o a B T o p B b i f l e j i a e T 6 OCHOBHMX p p o p M a j i b H b i x BMflOB HeHCToxoBCKMx KapTMH HapoflHoro xapaKTepa, nwTaacb ycTanoBMTb MX XPOHOJIOIIMK) ;M o T M e n a a MX CBH3b C HeKOTOpblMM KapTMHaMM HapOflHblX MaCTepOB flpyrax iieHTpoB. T a H K p e f l B a H a T e a H y , HflBMra í o p M a f l X H i o — X E H C K A H COPOHKA. O PyMbIHCKMX H A J I b H b l X KOCTHDMAX PyMbIHCKMe HapOflHbie COPOHKM HAH.MO- CpaBHMTCJIbHO flojiro c o x p a H a j i M CBOM Tpa/i;ML(MOHHbiM x a p a K T e p , XOTH B 3 a B M CMMOCTM OT p a Ü O H a OHM MMeiOT CBOM OTJIMHMTejIbHOe OCOBeHHOCTM. T m a T e j i b H O M3yHMB n o K p o M ZKeHCKoií p y S a n i K M , MOJKHO pa3JiMHHTb a s a ocHOBHbix rana: I HOHHO, I I B c 6 o p K y (MJIJI. 2). OHM B C T p e n a i o T C H B o n p e f l e j i e H H b i x p a í i o H a x , n p M n e M B K a s í f l O M M3 HMX B b i C T y n a i O T H e K O T O p b i e pa3JIMHMH. I — c o p o H K a n o H H o : nepefl M c n M H K a B b i K p o e H b i M3 oflHoro n o j i o T H M i n . a c o T B e p c r a e M n o c p e f l W H e fljia rojioBbi; p y K a B a B I U H T H nofl n p a M b i M y r j i O M . P a 3 J i M H B o r o pofla pyBamKM-noHHO BCTpeHaioTca H e TOJibKO B P y M b n i M M , HO M B c o c e f l H M X C T p a H a x . Ha p y M b m c K o í l TeppMTopMM OHM n p M H a f l J i e H t a T K c a M O M y C T a p o M y o5pa3qy, MX HOCHT H a paSoTe. OHM flejiaTca H a TPM p o ^ a : a) 6) c r j i a f l K O BIUHTBIMK p y K a B a M M M3 n p a M b i x K y c K O B n o J i o T H a (MJIJI. 2) — B p a f í o H a x C y H a B a , B a K a y , ByxapecT, OjiTeHHa. CopoHKM c coSpaHHbiMM y npoííMbí pyKaBaMM (MJIJI. 4) — B p a í i o H a x Apafl, <I>arapam, I l e p H a H M , MapaMypem, Oam. TaKoro n o K p o a COPOHKM B C T p e B) naioTca T a K H t e B K a p n a T C K O M y K p a M H e . CopoHiía, co5paHHaa nofl K O K e T K y c p y K a s a M M B c S o p K y (MJIJI. 5) — B p a í i O H e O j i T e H M a . II — COPOHKM M3 flByx n o J i o T B M u í : nepes M c n M H K a c coSpaHHbiMM y Bbipe3a p y K a B a M M . B c T p e H a i o T c a n o B c e ü T e p p M T o p M M c T p a H b i (MJIJI. 6, K a p T a ) . I I o K p o M a) — C o S p a H H a a , 6e3 n o j i n K O B (MJIJI. 6a, 7 ) . I I o K p o i í 6) — c n c e B f l o n o j i M K a M M , n p M n e M p y K a s a yflJTMHeHbi n p a M o y r o j i b H b i M K y c K O M n o j i o T H a „ajibTMTa" M npn- 135 �CTaHy. Tenepb B SToro po«a copoHKax n p n M o fleJiaiOT H3 spyroro M a T e p n a j i a neu B C H coponKa. IIoKpoft B ) — P y K a n a jiejiaiOT W3 T p e y r o j i b H o r o K y c K a nojioTHa, csepHyToro c n n p a J i b K > (HJIJI. 6C, 9) — paftoHax, « t a r a p a i i i , B p a H n a , B p a H Mymejib. lüMTfci K yrojibHHK CaMBiMM p a c n p o c T p a H e H H B i M H HBJIHIOTCH c o o p a H H b i e copoHKM 6 e 3 nojiMKOB. HTO K a c a e T C H T a K H a 3 . „ajibTMT", TO 3 f l e c b C K a 3 b i B a e r c H c j i a B H H C K o e BjiHHHMe, B TO speMa, K a K noHHO — CTapeMUiMÖ BO BCCM M w p e n o K p o ü p y ö a m e K — Sbiji TaKJKe n e p B b i M TMIIOM p y M b i H C K O K p y S a n i K M , KOTopbiM n o c T e n e n H O B w / i O H 3 M e H a j i c a , H e p e / i K O nofl BJIMHHweM „ M O f l w " . n p H K p o f i K e COPOHKM n o j i a r a j i o c b p a 3 p e 3 b i B a T b n o j i O T H o B f l o j i b HMTH. K p o M e T o r o H a f l J i e j K a j I O CTpeMMTbCH K p a u H O H a j i b H O M y H c n o j i b 3 0 B a H H i o M a x e p M a j i a . B b i p e s floxoflMT o ö b i H H o JJO JIHHHH ITTTPPT, rjpMHOM x a p a K T c p H o , HTO n e p e / i , c n M H K y w p y K a B a c o ö n p a i o T H a H H T K y , OÖDa3VH B O K D V r UieM CSODKM (MJI3I I I a ) B HeKOTOÜblX M e c x H O C T H X nDMHHTO a e j i a r b H e H T O B o o i i e eo6raHHoro CToanero Bopora, OTJiejiaHHoro B b i i U H B K O M (HJM. I I b ) . E c T b T a K J K e M e c T H O c r M , r;ie c ö o p K H B u i M B a i o T B n o a c . noflMbniiKOM B u i M B a i o T c a KBaflpaTHbie KJiwHba. C o p o H K H , K a K n p a B M J I O , U l b l O T C ,J(JIHHHbIMM, MHOrfla C OÖpaHHbIMM B H H 3 y , pyKaBaMM. IToa B J i w a H H e M r o p o w a HauMOHajibHbrii Hapafl B ^epeBHe n o c T e n e H H O wcne3aeT. Tenepb nacTO I I o a H H a M a i i e e B C K a - n a B K O B M H — OBPHflOB O E nPMKJIAflHOE M C K y C C T B O B B E J I O C T O K C K O H AEPEBHE B CBH3M C COCTOHBUieÜCH OCeHbK) 1965 T. BblCTaBKOÜ, a T a K H í e H a o c H O B e 5 o j i e e n o f l p o 6 H b i x MaTepwajioB, c o 6 p a m i b i x B p a ü o H e , aBTop cTaTbM « e j i a e T o63op npo6jieM, KacaiomHXca O6PHHOBOTO HCKyccTBa B BejiocTOHHMHe. B STOM p a ü o n e n p o n ; e c c OTMMpaHMH oópaflOB noflBMr a e T C H MefljieHHee, n e M B flpyrMX M e c T a x , XOTH c e ü í a c OHH y a c e j i H i H M j i w c b c B o e r o M a r w H e c K o r o xapaKTepa. Caiioe 5oraToe o S p a f l O B o e TBopnecTBo C B a 3 a H O c n p a 3flHHK0M P o s K f l e c T B a , K o r f l a j K M J i w m a y K p a u í a j i H C b 6 y MaJKHbiMM n a y K a M M M B b i p e 3 a H H b i M M M3 6 y M a r H 3 a H a B e c KaMM KOTOpbie no3flHee c T a j i n 3aMeHHTb pa3pMC0BaHHbiMM. M e c T o npe>KHero nuieHMHHoro c n o n a , 3 a H « j i a eJiKa. H o B c i o f l y p a c n p o c T p a H e H c ó b i n a ü K O J i a f l O B a T b co 3 B e 3 f l o ü ; aBTop noKa3bmaeT pa3JiMHHbie (bopsabí STOTO oóbtnaa (MJIJI. 1,2). B T O p b l M peKBH3MTOM K O J i a f l O B a H M H aBJiaeTCH B e p T e n H a n a j i K e . B HeKOTopbix paíioHax cymecTByeT o6t>a7T T a K H a 3 l l D o n a " • • 3 D e j i H L i i e v H a c T H n K M KOTOporo BbiCTynaioT B MacKax H cooTBercTByiomMx Hapaflax. Bo M H o r M X jiBpeBHHX Mpoiia." i c o n p o B 0 2 K i i a . e T K03a (HJIJI. 4, 5). C y i n e c T B O B a j í TaKJKe o6biHaü HapascaTbca HanoMMHaiomMe . f l b i r a H a M M " , K O T O P M Ü B IOJKHOH n a c T H BoeBOfflCTBa 6 b M C B a 3 a H c HOBBIM ToflOM, a B flpymx MecTax — cM a c - CopoHKM yKpamaMT pyHHOH BbnuwBKOM, pexe — TKaHbiM y a o p o M . K o M n o 3 M L ( M a y 3 o p o B C T p o r o c o H e r a e r c a c n o K p o e M copoHKM. UlBbi OTflejibmaioTca JieKopaTWBHblMM CTejKKaMM. Ilepefl M pyKaBa, B O p O T M MaHJKeTbl JieHML(eM. B H e K O T O p b l X MeCTHOCTHX BO B p e M H MacjieHHL(bi B b i C T y n a i O T c p e f l M p a s c e H b i x „ M e f l B e f l n " M „COJIOM e H H b l e «eflbl" — 2 MyHCHMH, o6BMTbIX COJIOMOÜ, — TaHn y i O T no/i; OKHaMM AOMOB. B M a c j i e H M u y n p w H a T O T a K a c e o6B03MTb „Aep¡a c 6a5oü" — (2 K y K J i w B a T y p a j i b H O ü Be- LUbioT c o p o H K M M3 d p a 6 p H H H o r o n o j i o r a a , n o K p o e M r o p o f l c i c u e KOPPTOHKM. OTflejiaHbi SoraToü BbimHBKOń, T m a T e j i b H O noAOÖpaHHOw n O K p O K ) COPOHKM. B pyöauiKax T w n a TIOHHO BbiuiHBKa oöpasyeT Karäiy Ha n j i e n a x B f l o j i b npowMbi (HJIJI. 15a), c o c T a B J i a a wHor/ia K BbiuiMTbiM npHMoyrojibHMK (HJIJI. 156). B eoopaHHbix p y S a i i i K a x o c H O B H a « j i H H w a o p H a M e H T a HfleT ropusoHTajibHO, o n y c K a a c b mixe njien. Eojiee n b i n i H ö w BMUIMBKOH O T AejibiBaioTca p y K a B a . B 6oraTbix y s o p a x c o p o n e K npeo6jia/iaioT paerwTejibH b i e H JKMBOTHbie MOTMBbI, a T a K J K e H e j I O B e H e C K H e CpMr y p w c noflMepKHyTO reoMeTpwHecKHMH jiHHHaMH. jiMHMHbi, cMflamMe H a KOJiece Tejiera). 3TOT oSbinaü c o HCKJiioHMTejibHO B yKasaHHOM paüone M Hwrfle xpaHMJica 6ojibuie. C p e A M HOBoroflHwx oóbinaes cymecTByer o6bnait 06paflOBoro neneHHH; co6jnoflaerca TaKJKe o ó b i n a ü B e c e n H e r o n e n e H b H , H a n p H M e p „ j K a B o p o H K O B " (HJIJI. 8) JIM6O „ 6 y c j i O B b i x ( a M C T O B b i x ) J i a n " (HJIJI. 10, 11). K MarwHecKMM oSpa^aM, C B H 3 a H H b i M c 6yflynu¡MM y p o - HíaeM, npMHafljieiKajia B b i n e n K a T a K H a 3 . „ K o p o B a a " Ha C B . „IOpMH" (CP. HJIJI. 16), C K O T O p b l M 06X0flHJIM nOJIH. K n a c x a j i b H b i M o 6 p a a a M npwHafljiejKajio CBaTMTb n a j i b M b í B Bep6Hoe BocKpeceHbe (HJIJI. 6, 7) H p a c K p a m i i B a H i i e HHH; 3oqbMa LI. e c b JI a - P e ił H dp y c — M3BA C „ B b l l H K O K " B MBICJIEHMH.KOM P A H O H E B 1965 r., BO BpeMa wHBeHTapM3aL(MOHHbix pa6oT (nKcaHOK). PacnpocTpaHeHHbiM o6binaeM cpe^n KaTOJiMH e c K o r o n n p a B o c j i a B H o r o H a c e j i e n i i a a B J i a e T C H CBHTHTb BeHKH KOTopbiMH oKypwBaiOT n e p e n y r a H H b i x A e T e ü , He B flaiOmHX MOJIOKO K O P O B ueflyPj CBH3aHHbix c ypojKaeM, 3aBepmaeT T S K HS3. ,,nepenejiKa" n o c j i e ^ H M Í i n y n e K KOJiocbe'B nepeBH3aHHbní B B e p x y TI y K p a u í G H H t í i í í HBGTSMH Ro n e p B o í í MMPOBOÍÍ B o ü H b i « o í K U H O H H b i ü B e H O K n j i e j i w TOJibKO T a M , r ^ e 6 b i j n i O T B e p c r a a , a noBCiofly jKHeubi npenoAHOCMJiM xo3HMHy nynoK yKpanieHHbix BjBeTaMM KOJiocbeB, Ha3biBaeMbiií „njioflbi ypoJKan". TaKoe me H a 3 B a H w e H M e e T 6 y K e T M3 K O J i o c b e B , a T a K J K e M3 p a 3 jiHHHwx nojieBbix w caflOBbix pacTeHMíi, n o cjiyqaio «epesne EorflaHOBKe, MwcjieHMaKoro paüoHa, ßbijia oÖHapyjKeHa W36a c K J i e T b i o H a nepaaKe, T.e. c TaK Ha3. „BbiiHKOü". M36a, n o c T p o e H H a a B 1800 r. n o oflHOTpaKTHOMy n j i a H y , COCTOMT M3 T p e x n a c T e w : 1) H i H J i a a nacTb, oxBaTbiBaioinaH KOMHaTy M „ n e KapHio", 2) n p o x o f l H b i e COHH, npMCTpoeHHbie K nenapHe M KOHIOUIHe, 3) ryMHO C B"be3flHbIMM BOpOTaMM, K K O T O p b I M upMMbiKaiOT 3 a K p o M a . n o c T p o M K y flonoJiHaeT c a p a ü . /(OM HOCTpOeH M3 TOJICTblX S p e B e H , COeflMHeHHblX B BMfle „ p b i ö b e r o x B O C T a " ; B ÄMJIOM q a c r w SpeBHa pySjieHbi MHane. Ü36a KpbiTa TOHTOM Ha c T p o n n j i a x . B H y T p w M36bi o c o ö b i i l HHTepec Bbi3MBaeT K y p H a a neKapHa. AeTajibHo o n n c b i B a a a x y H36y, aBTop o n e H b MHOTO BHMMaHHH y f l e j i a e T x a p a K T e p H o i l K J i e T M n a n e p a a K e H a a M360M T.Ha3. „BbiHiKe". Bxofl K H e ń B e f l e T M3 ceHeii, OTKyfla noflHUMaiOTCa n o JiecTfflme H a nepflaK, crynaa n o n o T O J i K y neKapHM (MJI. 16). flajibHeiiiHMe HccJieflOBaHMa noKa3ajiH, HTO H a STOM T e p p u T o p n H cymecTBOBajia T p a J^M^IIH flOMOB C „ B b H H K a M H " , K O T O p b i e B C e J K e OTJIMHajTMCb OT npMBefleHHoro H a M H o ö p a s a a BCTpeiajiMCb B KpecTbaHCKMx TeM, HTO OÖBIHHO OHM flBopax c o MBOMMH no- CTpoMKaMH. B MbicjieHimKOM pawoHe, TOHHO TaK JKe K a K B O p a B e , flOMa c „BbiniKaMw" H e C B a 3 a H b i c K S H H M TO o n p e s e j i e H H b i M TJUIOM B H y T p e H H o r o ycTpoücTBa M po3HHTCH K O H C T p y K U H e H . OSHapyjKeHHaa B STOM p a i i o H e H 3 6 a c „BbnuKOM" yKa3bmaeT H a TO, HTO T a K u e n o c T p o ü K M coopyscajnicb He TOJibKO B O p a B K e w Hoarajibe ( c p . KapTMHy). Pa3JiwH a w T C H flBa o c H O B a H b i x T H n a H36 C „BbiuiKaMM": 1) M36a c „BbiuiKOM" M BeflymMM K Hew KpbiJieHKOM — x a p a K T e p - OpaBCKOrO CTpOMTCJIbCTBa \ 2) M36a C „BblLUKOÜ" noÄ o6meił K p b i u i e ü (Tun, pacnpocTpaHeHHbiii B ü o f l rajibe). Bxofl H a „ B b i u i K y " H e p e 3 n e p ^ a K , KaK B M W C - n p a 3 A H M K a B o r o M a T e p M , oTMenaeMoro 15 aBrycTa (HJIJI. 3). C B a f l e 6 H b i e oSpa/ibi n p e f l C T a B J i e H M jiMiub HcneK a e M b r a rjiaBHbiM o 6 p a 3 0 M B B O C T O i H b i x p a í i o H a x ; oflH a K O o d b r a a i i STOT p a c n p o c T p a H a e T C H H K 3 a n a f l y OT r p a HOCTM c „ K o p o B a e M " C B a s a H M p a 3 J i n H H b i e >npa3flHeHCTBa. TpaflMuwa „KopoBaa" nocTeneHHo oTMwpaeT (ero 3 a MeHaeT CBafle6Hbül nMpor), coxpaHHBiuHCb j i w m b B BOCTOHHOH n o r p a H M H H o í í n o j i o c e . B saKJiioHeHMe aBTop C T a T b H O T M e n a e i : 1. H a ocHOBaHMM n p o B e f l e H H b i x B flannoü MecTHOcTM M c c j i e f l O B a H M i l MOJKHO C K a 3 a T b , HTO H n o j i b C K o e n 6 e j i o p y c c K o e H a c e j i e H i i e n p n j j , e p ? K M B a e T C H T e x Tue o 6 p a flOBbix dpopM c Toa pa3HHueü, HTO y n o j i H K O B Her o 6 b i n a a w c n e K a T b c n e b ( M a j i b H o e n e n e H b e K BeceHHMM npa3flHHKaM. 2. C x o f l C T B o MeiKfly o6paflaMM C B M f l e T e j i b C T B y e r o B 3 a n - 236 MonpoHMKaHHM w o 6 m e í l a r p a p H o ü o c n o B e . oflHM M Te ? K e n p e ^ M e T b i HMeioT p a 3 J i n H H o e o6pa«0Boe SHaneniie. H a c T O npeflMeTbi, McnojiHaroiuMe y o 6 e n x r p y n n oflMHaKOBbie cpyHKHHH, po3HHTca ppopMOH JIH6O yKpaiueHuaMM. Ho M e p e T o r o , K a K TepaioT CBoe 3 H a n e H M e o6paftbi r j i o x H e r TaKJKe o5paflOBoe HCKyccTBO. C r j i a j K M B a H w e pa3JiMHMü CMJibHee B b i c x y n a e T TaM, rfle n p o n 3 o r u j i o cMenieBMe HacejieHHa pa3JiHHHoro npoMCXOfleHHH. 3. H a c T o 4. TaKJKe M B ąeHTpajibHow OpaBe M B Hoflrajibe. Ha ocHOBaHKM MMeiomHxca flOKyMeHTOB c XVII M X V I I I B B . MOJKHO npeflnojiaraTb, HTO n e p B O H a n a j i b H O M36a c „ B b i u i K O M " CTpoMJiacb 6 e 3 K p b i j i e H K a , Koropoe noaBMJiocb B 6ojiee no3flHHM n e p n o f l . — HMn,bi 6 e j i o p y c c K H x nocejieHMH. B 3aBHCWMOCTH OT MCCT- HWM T I H I jieHHL^KOM p a ü o H e , B C T p e H a e r c a Ha BbicTaBKe CBafle6Hbra neneHbeM „KopoBaü" (HJIJI. 16—18) 5. 6. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez: P.P. WYDAWNICTWA ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. dużego formatu, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 24 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k , 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty m a t e r i a ł ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 170 str. druku, około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , około 130 str. d r u k u , liczne p r z y k ł a d y nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. Wszystkie czasopisma n a b y w a ć można regularnie jedynie w prenu- W A R U N K I PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ SZTUKI LUDOWEJ" Cena prenumeraty: p ó ł r o c z n i e zł 36, rocznie zł 72. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są do 10 dnia m i e s i ą c a poprzedzającego okres prenumeraty. P r e n u m e r a t ę na k r a j dla c z y t e l n i k ó w indywidualnych p r z y j m u j ą u r z ę d y pocztowe oraz listonosze. Czytelnicy i n d y w i d u a l n i m o g ą r ó w n i e ż d o k o n y w a ć w p ł a t na konto P K O N r 1-6-100020 — Centrala K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch" Warszawa, u l . Wronia 23. Wszystkie instytucje p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne m o g ą z a m a w i a ć prenume­ r a t ę w y ł ą c z n i e za p o ś r e d n i c t w e m O d d z i a ł ó w i Delegatur „ R u c h " . 23, tel. 20-46-88, konto P K O N r 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze n u m e r ó w zdeaktualizowanych m o ż n a n a b y w a ć w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m Prasy Archiwalnej „Ruch", Warszawa, ul. Nowomiejska nr 15/17, konto P K O N r 114-6-700041 V I I Oddział M i e j s k i Warszawa. A k t u a l n e numery czasopism I n s t y t u t u Sztuki P A N posiada Rozpowszechniania W y d a w n i c t w N a u k o w y c h P A N w P a ł a c u i N a u k i w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury Zakłady Graficzne „Tamka" Zakład Nr 2 W-wa, Podchorążych 39. Zam. 223. Pap. ilustr. k l . I I I , 120 g A l + karton biały kl. I I I , 220 g. BI. Nakład 1250 egz. M-7 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/8f761adb6eb7c2eeb61a7e05a22cff33.pdf 7dd1331c0624b893f10969b1657a839f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4941 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4580 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1966 t.20 z.3-4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1966 t.20 z.3-4; s.231-236 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text K R O N I K A za okres IV - IX. 1966 Konferencje, zjazdy 14 m a j a o d b y ł a się w W a r s z a w i e narada p o ś w i ę c o n a s z t u c e l u d o w e j i folklorowi Mazowsza, Kurpiów i Podlasia, zorganizowana przez Wydz. K u l t . P W R N . Uczestniczyli w niej n a u k o w c y , przedstawiciele Cepelii i t e r e n o w y c h w ł a d z k u l t u ­ ralnych. Radzono n a d p r o b l e m a m i inwentaryzacji i konserwacji zabyt­ ków a r c h i t e k t u r y d r e w n i a n e j ( s p r a ­ wa skansenów), p o t r z e b ą u t w o r z e n i a w terenie e t n o g r a f i c z n y c h punktów m u z e a l n y c h ( w Pułtusku, S i e r p c u i Węgrowie), m e t o d a m i o p i e k i jaką należy o t o c z y ć t w ó r c ó w l u d o w y c h . Zwrócono u w a g ę C e p e l i i n a k o n i e c z ­ ność p o p r a w y i z a o p a t r z e n i a w s u ­ rowce pracujących d l a n i e j t w ó r ­ ców l u d o w y c h o r a z u a k t y w n i e n i e podległych C e p e l i i z e s p o ł ó w r e g i o ­ nalnych. D y s k u t o w a n o p r o j e k t y roz­ woju dorocznych imprez regional­ nych. * W L u b l i n i e obradował w czerw­ cu Z j a z d M i ę d z y w o j e w ó d z k i e g o K l u ­ b u P i s a r z y L u d o w y c h , zrzeszającego p o n a d 100 t w ó r c ó w z całego k r a j u . Z e b r a n i wysłuchali r e f e r a t ó w d o t y ­ czących z n a c z e n i a ludowej twór­ czości p i s a r s k i e j d l a k u l t u r y n a r o ­ d o w e j (St. C z e r n i k a ) o r a z j e j m i e j s c a w l i t e r a t u r z e współczesnej ( d r R. R o s i a k a ) . O d b y ł się w i e c z ó r a u t o r s k i uczestników o r a z ogłoszenie w y n i ­ k ó w k o n k u r s u n a poezję l u d o w ą , n a k t ó r y w p ł y n ę ł o 65 p r a c . P i e r w s z y m i n a g r o d a m i wyróżniono u t w o r y H a n ­ n y N o w o b i l s k i e j z Białki Tatrzań­ skiej (woj.' k r a k o w s k i e ) oraz Jana Pocka z K a l e n i a (woj. lubelskie). Z okazji zjazdu o t w a r t o n a Z a m k u w Lublinie dwie wystawy: dorobku pisarstwa ludowego oraz malarzy „prymitywów". kulturalno-oświatowej organizacji społeczno-kulturalnych) w y g ł o s i ł d y r . dep.,, m g r Cz. K a ł u ż n y . Wszyscy u c z e s t n i c y sesji o t r z y m a l i p o w i e l o n e t e k s t y referatów. O r g a n i z a t o r z y p l a ­ nują też ogłoszenie m a t e r i a ł ó w sesyjnych drukiem. Zorganizowano w czasie sesji objazd terenowy muzeów regional­ n y c h oraz ośrodków etnograficznych K o c i e w i a , Powiśla i K a s z u b , odbyły się w y s t ę p y z e s p o ł ó w r e g i o n a l n y c h z K w i d z y n i e i K o ś c i e r z y n y . Szcze­ gólnie interesujące d l a uczestników o b j a z d u było poznanie zbiorów k u l ­ tury materialnej i sztuki ludowej, zgromadzonych przez miejscowe społeczeństwo w S t a r o g a r d z i e , S z t u ­ mie oraz Kartuzach (Muzeum K a ­ szubskie). Działalność muzeów W Łowiczu n a zapleczu g m a c h u M u z e u m p o w s t a j e skansen łowicki. Przeniesiono już dwie chałupy z końca X V I I I i początku X I X w . * W K a t o w i c a c h n a obszarze 20- h e k t a r o w e g o t e r e n u wchodzącego w skład P a r k u K u l t u r y p o w s t a j e s k a n ­ sen, n a j w i ę k s z y w k r a j u . N a p o d ­ s t a w i e badań t e r e n o w y c h wytypo­ wano i wykonano inwentaryzację 80 z a b y t k ó w a r c h i t e k t u r y l u d o w e j , k t ó r e znajdą się w s k a n s e n i e . - » W B i e r k o w i c a c h p o d Opolem roz­ poczęto budowę skansenowskiego Muzeum Wsi Opolskiej. Zaplano­ w a n o , że d o 1970 r . w muzeum z n a j d o w a ć się b ę d z i e 60 o b i e k t ó w . Przeniesiono już 15 z a b y t k o w y c h b u d y n k ó w , które p o d d a w a n e są k o n ­ serwacji i montowane. * W Gdańsku o d b y ł a się w d n i a c h 26—28 w r z e ś n i a „Sesja p o p u l a r n o - n a u k o w a dotycząca F o l k l o r u i S z t u ­ ki Ludowej Pomorza Gdańskiego". Organizatorami jej b y l i : Wydz. K u l t . PWRN, Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie, muzea woj. gdańskiego i i n n i . Uczestniczyli w sesji p r z e d ­ stawiciele instytucji naukowych, m u z e ó w , t e r e n o w i działacze k u l t u r y i p r z e d s t a w i c i e l e stowarzyszeń r e ­ gionalnych. Referaty podstawowe wygłosili: doc. d r J . Ligęza (Folklor j a k o c z y n n i k w z b o g a c a j ą c y kulturę narodową) oraz prof, d r M . Z n a m i e rowska-Prüft'erowa ( P o t r z e b y i moż­ l i w o ś c i w z a k r e s i e badań f o l k l o r y ­ stycznych na Pomorzu Gdańskim w o p a r c i u o placówki muzealne). Pięć referatów r e g i o n a l n y c h d o t y ­ c z y ł o poszczególnych d z i e d z i n fol­ kloru ludowego Pomorza. Referat końcowy (Popularyzacja folkloru i sztuki ludowej w działalności W Toruniu, na terenie przylega­ jącym d o M u z e u m Etnograficznego, o r g a n i z u j e się P a r k E t n o g r a f i c z n y , w k t ó r y m znajdą się z a g r o d y c h ł o p ­ skie z K u j a w , Pałuk i Kaszub. U r z ą d z e n i e i c h w n ę t r z , ilustrujące kulturę l u d o w ą t y c h r e g i o n ó w n a p r z e ł o m i e X I X i X X w . , uzupełni ekspozycję muzealną. P r z e n o s i się też n a t e r e n P a r k u w i e l k i s p i c h r z k u j a w s k i (dworski), w którym znaj­ dą p o m i e s z c z e n i e w y s t a w y c z a s o w e . W o r g a n i z a c j i P a r k u w i e l k i e zasługi położyło istniejące o d r o k u Towa­ r z y s t w o Przyjaciół M u z e u m E t n o ­ graficznego. W Ustce powstało, j a k o filia Muzeum Pomorza Środkowego w Słupsku, skansenowskie muzeum rybackie. Ekspozycja jego i l u s t r u j e w a r u n k i życia i p r a c y r y b a k ó w . * W Rawie Mazowieckiej, w gma­ chu dawnego k o l e g i u m jezuickiego, otwarto M u z e u m Regionalne Z i e m i Rawskiej. Zgromadzono przede wszystkim zabytki sztuki i kultury materialnej l u d o w e j , , j a k rzeźby, s t r o j e , m e b l e i sprzęty g o s p o d a r s k i e . * Koło Miłośników Ciechanowca z o r g a n i z o w a ł o w s w y m mieście M u ­ z e u m R o l n i c z e , dysponujące p o n a d 700 e k s p o n a t a m i . * W Zwierzyńcu, p o w . Zamość, o r g a n i z u j e się M u z e u m Regionalne Roztocza. Z g r o m a d z o n o już wiele eksponatów, n i . i n . z z a k r e s u rzeźby ludowej. * M u z e u m Z i e m i Pasymskiej po­ w s t a j e z i n i c j a t y w y społecznej w Pasymiu. W lokalu miejscowej mle­ c z a r n i z g r o m a d z o n o już w i e l e z a ­ bytków k u l t u r y l u d o w e j , głównie mebli, sprzętów gospodarskich i tkanin. * I n i c j a t y w a t w o r z e n i a Izb Regio­ n a l n y c h i I z b P a m i ą t e k r o z w i j a się n a d a l ( p o r . k r o n i k a n r 2/66). W o m a ­ w i a n y m półroczu u t w o r z o n o nowe izby: w Boguszowie, pow. Wał­ b r z y c h ( m a o n a być z a l ą ż k i e m p r z y ­ szłego M u z e u m Z i e m i W a ł b r z y s k i e j ) . Na terenie w o j . olsztyńskiego u t w o r z o n o t r z y leśne i z b y r e g i o n a l ­ n e : w Jaśkowie koło W i a r t l a , Spy­ c h o w i e i w leśniczówce N i d a . W i e j ­ s k i e i z b y r e g i o n a l n e powstały w Parlezie Wielkiej, pow. Morąg, i Wrzesinie, pow. Olsztyn. W K r a k o w s k i e m i z b y powstały w Dobrej, pow. Limanowa i w Si­ dzinie, p o w . N o w y T a r g . W P c i m i u w Szkole Podstawowej i m . M . Radockiego powstał szkolny „kącik pamiątek r e g i o n a l n y c h " . Szkolną izbę pamiątek o t w a r t o też w Liceum Ogólnokształcącym w Tyszowcach, p o w . Tomaszów L u ­ belski. K l a s z t o r cystersów w S z c z y r z y c u , p o w . L i m a n o w a , z o r g a n i z o w a ł stałą ekspozycję muzealną z b i o r ó w w ł a s ­ n y c h w salach d a w n e j b u r s y klasz­ t o r n e j . Szczególnie interesująca j e s t k o l e k c j a z a b y t k o w e j rzeźby l u d o w e j , gromadząca kilkadziesiąt eksponatów z terenu p o w . L i m a n o w a oraz k o ­ l e k c j a r z e ź b J . J a n a s a z Dębna Podhalańskiego. 227 �Konkursy, folkloru wystawy, dni i festiwale Wystawę p.n. „Kultura l u d o w a P o d h a l a " zorganizowało Państwowe Muzeum Etnograficzne w Warsza­ w i e o r a z M i n i s t . K u l t . i Szt. n a barce pływającej Notecią, Wartą i Odrą o d m a j a d o września. P o k a ­ z a n o o k . 150 eksponatów z d z i e d z i n y snycerki, m e b l a r s t w a , s t r o j u , narzę­ dzi gospodarskich, c e r a m i k i , m a l a r ­ s t w a i rzeźby. B a r k a z a t r z y m y w a ł a się w w i ę k s z y c h o s i e d l a c h i m i a ­ stach. W s i e r p n i u b a r k a zawinęła n a 10 d n i d o F r a n k f u r t u n a d Odrą, gdzie wystawa była centralnym p u n k t e m uroczystości k u czci M i l l e ­ n i u m Państwa Polskiego. Wystawę n a b a r c e z w i e d z i ł o w t y m sezonie p o n a d 30 tysięcy osób. * O d 2 d o 16 m a j a o t w a r t a b y ł a < w Szczecinie, w s a l a c h W D K n a Z a m k u , w y s t a w a m a l a r s t w a n a szkle H. Roj-Ciaptakowej z Zakopanego. D n i f o l k l o r u pałuckiego zorga­ nizowali w d r u g i e j połowie m a j a Wydz. K u l t . P W R N w Bydgoszczy i P P R N w Żninie, P D K i M u z e u m R e g i o n a l n i e w Żninie. Z t e j o k a z j i odbył się z j a z d t w ó r c ó w l u d o w y c h , urządzony w d n i u o t w a r c i a w y s t a w y s z t u k i l u d o w e j Pałuk. P o k a z a n o n a w y s t a w i e przede w s z y s t k i m ekspo­ n a t y współczesne. Reprezentowane b y ł y : rzeźba w d r e w n i e , p t a s z k a r stwo, p i e m i k a r s t w o oraz h a f c i a r s t w o . wystawa „Tkanina-haft-koronka" reprezentująca pracę u c z e n n i c T e c h ­ n i k u m Tkactwa Artystycznego i Za­ sadniczej Szkoły Zawodowej im. Heleny Modrzejewskiej w Zako­ panem. W y s t a w a pokazywała d o r o ­ b e k o s t a t n i c h 20 l a t p r a c y szkoły. Wychowując przede wszystkim d z i e w c z ę t a góralskie, z a t r u d n i o n e p o skończeniu szkoły g ł ó w n i e w Z a k o ­ piańskich W a r s z t a t a c h W z o r c o w y c h , szkoła dąży d o p o w i ą z a n i a a r t y s t y c z ­ n e g o rękodzieła w s p ó ł c z e s n e g o z b a ­ zą s u r o w c o w ą i t r a d y c j a m i a r t y ­ stycznymi regionu. * Wystawę sztuki ludowej pow. lubaczowskiego zogranizował w m a j u w Lubaczowie Wydz. K u l t . W E N . P o k a z a n o rzeźbę, m a l a r s t w o , tkaninę i haft. * Doroczny konkurs malowania c h a t w Z a l i p i u o d b y ł się 30 m a j a . Jednocześnie z o r g a n i z o w a n o o d d z i e l ­ n y k o n k u r s d l a dzieci w miejsco­ w e j szkole i przedszkolu. Ogółem uczestniczyło w k o n k u r s i e 32 m a ­ larki i 2 malarzy ludowych. * W m a j u o t w a r t a b y ł a w Często­ c h o w i e „ W y s t a w a twórczości l u d o ­ w e j , a m a t o r s k i e j i rękodzielniczej", z o r g a n i z o w a n a p r z e z oddział C e p e l i a z K a t o w i c . P o k a z a n o snycerkę w drewnie, tkactwo i koronki, kowal­ s t w o a r t y s t y c z n e , biżuterię cieszyń­ ską F. H o r a k a , r z e ź b y w d r e w n i e . * * Wystawę sztuki ludowej pow. o l k u s k i e g o urządzono w s a l i T e c h n i ­ k u m Ekonomicznego w Olkuszu, w czerwcu, z okazji obchodów D n i ziemi olkuskiej. Organizowali w y ­ stawę Muzeum Etnograficzne w Krakowie i Wydz. Kult. PPRN. Pokazano eksponaty zabytkowe i współczesne z z a k r e s u m e b l a r s t w a , z d o b n i c t w a wnętrza, s t r o j u , t k a n i n y , ceramikę, plastykę o b r z ę d o w ą (pięk­ ne l a l k i j a s e ł k o w e ) , rzeźbę i m a ­ larstwo. * W czasie d n i K r a k o w a o b c h o d z o ­ n y c h corocznie w c z e r w c u Cepelia zorganizowała n a R y n k u M a r i a c k i m wielki kiermasz wyrobów ludowych. W czasie k i e r m a s z u urządzono p o ­ kazy w y k o n y w a n i a m a l o w a n e k z a l i piańskich, h a f t u i k o r o n k a r s t w a . * Wystawę sztuki l u d o w e j z okolic Strzyżowa z o r g a n i z o w a n o w S t r z y ­ ż o w i e w czasie c z e r w c o w y c h o b c h o ­ dów „Dni z i e m i strzyżewskiej". W y ­ s t a w i o n e e k s p o n a t y pochodziły ze z b i o r ó w p r y w a t n y c h Z . Leśniaka. Pokazano w y r o b y z drewna, cera­ mikę, t k a n i n y , r z e ź b y * w W m a j u i c z e r w c u c z y n n a była pałacyku T P S P w Warszawie 228 D n i Sieradza, szczególnie uro­ czyste w związku z obchodami m i l e n i j n y m i , o d b y ł y się o d 28 m a j a do 5 c z e r w c a . Z o r g a n i z o w a n o m . i n . wystawę sztuki l u d o w e j w miejsco­ w y m muzeum, kiermasz wyrobów l u d o w y c h i występy zespołów f o l ­ klorystycznych. * W czasie t r w a n i a D n i Ł o w i c z a — 4 1 5 czerwca, otwarto w M u z e u m retrospektywną w y s t a w ę p r a c K a t a ­ r z y n y Guzek i Z o f i i Wiechno obcho­ dzących 65-lecie i 40-lecie twórczości artystycznej. Pokazano w y c i n a n k i , tkaniny i hafty. Obie twórczynie otrzymały n a g r o d y M i n i s t r a K u l t u r y i S z t u k i . Z o k a z j i „ D n i " urządzono kiermasz wyrobów ludowych, kon­ k u r s n a przyśpiewki łowickie, k o ­ r o w ó d r e g i o n a l n y , o d b y ł y się w y ­ stępy z e s p o ł ó w pieśni i tańca — miejscowych oraz zaproszonych — k u r p i o w s k i e g o z Łomży i „Podhala". D n i f o l k l o r u z i e m i łódzkiej o b ­ c h o d z o n o o d 15 d o 19 c z e r w c a . O r g a ­ nizatorami byli Wydz. Kult. P W R N , M u z e u m Archeologiczne i Etnogra­ ficzne oraz t e r e n o w e placówki k u l ­ t u r a l n e . Urządzono wystawę współ­ czesnej s z t u k i l u d o w e j p o w . łódz­ k i e g o , poprzedzoną k o n k u r s e m n a którym p i e r w s z y m i n a g r o d a m i w y ­ różniono: Walentynę Stożkową z K u ­ r o w i c za w y c i n a n k i , K a t a r z y n ę Zię­ t e k z C z a r n o c i n a za strój, Marię Białowąs z Tychowa za wózek dyngusowy, H e n r y k a Wlazło z Ty­ c h o w a za k o w a l s t w o . W zorganizo­ w a n y m w dniu otwarcia wystawy Z j e ź d z i e t w ó r c ó w l u d o w y c h wzięło udział 45 osób. P o n a d 50 zespołów regionalnych i kapel ludowych wzięło udział w 20 imprezach. W M u z e u m E t n o g r a f i c z n y m wygło­ szono s z e r e g o d c z y t ó w poświęconych sztuce l u d o w e j i f o l k l o r o w i , w k i ­ nach wyświetlano f i l m y etnograficz­ n e . N a zakończenie D n i odbył się korowód zespołów głównymi ulica­ m i m i a s t a o r a z k i e r m a s z z udziałem twórców ludowych. * Centralne uroczystości „Mazo­ w i e c k i e j W i o s n y K u l t u r a l n e j " od­ b y ł y się w P ł o c k u w d n i a c h 23—26 czerwca. Organizatorami Wiosny byli Wydz. K u l t . P W R N i PPRN w o j . warszawskiego. Imprezę przy­ g o t o w y w a n o n a terenie wojewódz­ t w a w ciągu całego r o k u . P o p r z e ­ d z i ł y ją p o w i a t o w e s e j m i k i k u l t u ­ r a l n e i e l i m i n a c j e zespołów arty­ stycznych l u d o w y c h i amatorskich (działa i c h p o n a d 150), z których najlepsze wystąpiły n a estradach płockich. Z z e s p o ł ó w f o l k l o r y s t y c z ­ n y c h w y r ó ż n i ł y się „ K a d z i d ł o " — zespół spółdzielni K u r p i a n k a , San­ n i k i — z Sannik i Opocznianka — z Opoczna. Z o r g a n i z o w a n o też w y s t a w ę „Ma­ zowiecka Wiosna Kulturalna", w salach P r e z y d i u m P R N . Pokazano w y c i n a n k i czołowych w y c i n a n k a r e k o b u p u s z c z k u r p i o w s k i c h , pająki, b u k i e t y sztucznych kwiatów, palmy w i e l k a n o c n e i w y c i n a n k i , a także p l e c i o n k i ze słomy i k o r z e n i , rzeźbę w d r e w n i e , tkaninę, strój i c e r a m i ­ k ę . P o z i o m e k s p o n a t ó w b y ł n a ogół b. dobry. Z wyjątkiem t k a n i n i stro­ j u e k s p o n o w a n o w y r o b y współczes­ ne, lub rekonstrukcje wykonane przez twórczynie ludowe (wózek dyngusowy, gaik). Komisarzem wy­ s t a w y był A n t o n i Sledziewski, pro­ j e k t i r e a l i z a c j ę plastyczną o p r a c o ­ wali Janina i Wiktor Stankiewiczowie. Katalog wystawy „Mazowiecka W i o s n a K u l t u r a l n a " , W a r s z a w a I960, s. 14, i l . 9, z a w i e r a a r t y k u ł A . Sled z i e w s k i e g o , w p r o w a d z a j ą c y d o te­ m a t u w y s t a w y oraz fotografie typo­ w y c h eksponatów. * Wystawa haftu i stroju kujaw­ s k i e g o c z y n n a b y ł a w S z k o l e Pod­ stawowej w Sławsku W i e l k i m w m a j u i czerwcu. Organizowała w y ­ stawę n a u c z y c i e l k a M . Patykówna pod n a d z o r e m M u z . Etnograficznego w Toruniu. Eksponaty wykonane zostały p r z e z o k . 40 uczestniczek zimowego k u r s u u n i w e r s y t e t u pow­ szechnego, n a k t ó r y m prowadzono m . i n . (naukę t r a d y c y j n e g o kujaw­ skiego h a f t u i k r o j u . * W l o k a l u k l u b u „ R u c h u " w Ja­ worzynce odbyła się w czerwcu, * �¡sorganizowana p r z e z k l u b , w y s t a ­ wa k o r o n e k cieszyńskich, w y k o n a ­ nych p r z e z c z ł o n k i n i e istniejącego przy k l u b i e 3 0 - o s o b o w e g o zespołu haftu l u d o w e g o . * W y s t a w ę współczesnej twórczości ludowej O p o l s z c z y z n y z o r g a n i z o w a ł o w czerwcu M u z e u m Opolskie p r z y współudziale M i n i s t . K u l t . i Szt. Pokazano k r a s z o n k i , pająki, k w i a t y sztuczne, h a f t y , r e k o n s t r u k c j e s t r o ­ ju, s z m a c i a k i o r a z r z e ź b ę i m a l a r ­ stwo o c h a r a k t e r z e twórczości a m a ­ torskiej. W y s t a w a m a być e k s p o n o ­ wana także w Czechosłowacji. * Z o k a z j i M i l l e n i u m chrześcijań­ stwa w P o l s c e urządzono w w i e l u diecezjach w y s t a w y s z t u k i religij­ nej, mające działy sztuki ludo­ wej. W y s t a w a t a k a o t w a r t a była w czerwcu w L u b l i n i e w b u d y n k u p r z y k a t e d r a l n y m . Pokazano rzeźby w d r e w n i e , ceramikę z Urzędowa, krzyże k o w a l s k i e . Podobna wystawa, zorganizowana przez P A X i V e r i t a s c z y n n a b y ł a w c z e r w c u i l i p c u w Częstochowie w jednym z pawilonów wystawo­ wych przy I I I A l e i . Wśród ekspona­ tów s z t u k i l u d o w e j z w r a c a ł a u w a g ę rzeźba w d r z e w i e , z a r ó w n o z a b y t ­ k o w a (ze z b i o r ó w p r y w a t n y c h T . Se­ weryna i J . W i k t o r a ) , j a k współ­ czesna, o r a z m a l a r s t w o n a s z k l e . * Z okazji obchodzonych w czerw­ cu D n i F o l k l o r u W i e l k o p o l s k i M u ­ zeum Z i e m i Szamotulskiej w Szamo­ tułach o p r a c o w a ł o w y s t a w y : „Lu­ d o w y h a f t s z a m o t u l s k i " , którą e k s p o ­ nowano w w i t r y n a c h sklepowych na r y n k u w e W r o n k a c h , „Relikty b u d o w n i c t w a ludowego z i e m i szamo­ tulskiej w fotografii" w klubie „Ad A c t a " w Szamotułach o r a z w y s t a w ę „Wielkopolskie m a l a r s t w o i rzeźba l u d o w a " ze z b i o r ó w M u z e u m N a r o ­ d o w e g o w P o z n a n i u , którą p o k a z a n o w sali w y s t a w czasowych M u z e u m w Szamotułach. * robów z 'drewna, iplecionek, zaba­ wek, kowalstwa oraz przegląd współczesnej r z e ź b y l u d o w e j . R e ­ p r e z e n t o w a n e są ma w y s t a w i e r e g i o ­ n y K u j a w , Pałuki, K a s z u b y , W a r ­ mia, K u r p i e i Podlasie północne. W dniu Otwarcia wystawy przeka­ zano z w i e d z a j ą c y m p i e r w s z y b u d y ­ nek s k a n s e n u : mały spichlerzyk kujawski. * Wystawa kurpiowskiej rzeźby l u d o w e j o t w a r t a była w lecie n a terenie muzeum skansenowskiego w Nowogrodzie. * W klubie M P i K w Lublinie o t w a r t a była w l i p c u i s i e r p n i u w y ­ s t a w a m a l o w a n e k zalipiańskich ( p n . „Kwiaty Zalipianek"), zorganizowa­ na staraniem lubelskiego BWA, MPiK, przy udziale Wydz. Kult. P W R N . Pokazano prace Felicji C u r y ł o w e j , M . W o j t y t o , F. K o s i e n i a k i L. Kosieniak-Rycerzowej. Ekspo­ n a t y pochodziły ze z b i o r ó w m u z e ó w etnograficznych w Warszawie i K r a ­ kowie oraz z kolekcji prywatnej. J . Stelmaszczyka. * W Wejherowie, w salach p o w . D o m u K u l t u r y , o t w a r t o 30 l i p c a wystawę prac twórców ludowych powiatu wejherowskiego. Organiza­ torami jej b y l i : Wydz. K u l t . P R N oraz Zrzeszenie Pomorsko-Kaszubs k i e . Z g r o m a d z o n o p o n a d 130 p r a c 23 autorów. N a j l i c z n i e j reprezento­ wane były h a f t y ikaszubkie, p l e ­ c i o n k i o r a z rzeźba w d r e w n i e (o c h a r a k t e r z e twórczości a m a t o r s k i e j ) . W e wrześniu w y s t a w ę p r z e n i e s i o n o do M D K w R u m i , a następnie d o R e d y . W czasie t r w a n i a w y s t a w y zorganizowano w Wejherowie na­ radę t w ó r c ó w l u d o w y c h z p r z e d ­ stawicielami władz k u l t u r y i h a n d l u . D y s k u t o w a n o n a niej głównie za­ gadnienia organizacji zbytu w y r o ­ bów ludowych i opieki n a d ich w y ­ twórcami. d e l e chałup, sprzęty i drewniane, hafty, stroje. * W y s t a w a „Sztuka l u d o w a n a G ó r ­ n y m Śląsku" o t w a r t a była w s i e r p ­ n i u w salach B W A w Katowicach. Organiza to r a m i w y s t a w y b y l i : Wydz. K u l t . W E N , M u z e u m Górnośląskie w Bytomiu i B W A w Katowicach. P o k a z a n o o k . 180 eksponatów z z a ­ kresu haftu i tkactwa, kowalstwa i j u b i l e r s t w a , z d o b i o n y c h snycerką przedmiotów d r e w n i a n y c h (naczy­ n i a , f o r m y n a masło i p i e r n i k i , n a ­ rzędzia t k a c k i e ) , p l a s t y k i o b r z ę d o ­ w e j (maski), i n s t r u m e n t y muzyczne, m a l a r s t w o n a płótnie i n a s z k l e o r a z rzeźbę w d r z e w i e (tradycyjną i współczesną). E k s p o n a t y pocho­ dziły ze z b i o r ó w M u z e u m G ó r n o ­ śląskiego. K o m i s a r z e m w y s t a w y był St. T e j w a n , scenariusz i k a t a l o g opracował E. Jaworski. Katalog „Sztuka l u d o w a n a G ó r n y m Śląsku", K a t o w i c e 1966,, s. 28 n l b , i l . 1 1 , a r t y ­ kuł w s t ę p n y w p r o w a d z a j ą c y w z a ­ gadnienie śląskiej s z t u k i ludowej o r a z spis eksponatów. * W y s t a w ę rzeźby l u d o w e j Kie­ lecczyzny, przygotowaną przez M u ­ z e u m Świętokrzyskie w Kielcach, eksponowało w s i e r p n i u M u z e u m ziemi n y s k i e j w Nysie. Pokazano kilkadziesiąt rzeźb, p r z e d e wszyst­ k i m współczesnych: L . K u d ł y , A . i H . Z e g a d ł ó w , J . Piłata, M . G r y g l a . W sali P D K w Kościerzynie o t w a r t a była w s i e r p n i u i wrześniu wystawa współczesnej twórczości l u d o w e j Kaszub á Kociewia, zorga­ n i z o w a n a przez pracowników P D K . P o k a z a n o o k o ł o 400 eksponatów, r e ­ prezentujących t k a c t w o ( s z m a c i a k i ) , p l e c i o n k a r s t w o (bogaty zestaw p l e ­ cionek z Wdzydz), garncarstwo, haft i rzeźbę w d r e w n i e . W wystawie uczestniczyli wszyscy wybitniejsi współcześni t w ó r c y l u d o w i z t y c h regionów. * * W salach w y s t a w o w y c h Domu Chłopa w W a r s z a w i e c z y n n a b y ł a w c z e r w c u w y s t a w a rzeźbiarzy l u ­ dowych z Zawidza. B y ł a t o już druga w t y m roku wystawa zawidzkich twórców zorganizowana w W a r s z a w i e przez spółdzielnię „ G r o ­ m a d a " ( p o r . k r o n i k a n r 2/66). P o k a ­ zano n a j n o w s z e prace K r a j e w s k i c h , Wierzchowskiego i Wierzbickiego; większość rzeźb zakupiła C e p e l i a . W l i p c u o t w a r t a była w P u c k u , w sali P r e z y d i u m P P R N wystawa Sztuki ludowej Kaszub, zorganizo­ w a n a przez W D K i Wydz. Kult. PRN, z okazji D n i Morza. Pokazano p o n a d 130 p r a c , p r z e d e w s z y s t k i m hafty kaszubskie, wyodrębniając t w ó r c z o ś ć h a f c i a r e k poszczególnych ośrodków: Żukowa, W d z y d z , P u c k a . Z n a l a z ł y się n a w y s t a w i e t a k ż e t k a ­ niny, ceramika, plecionki z korzeni i ze słomy, w y r o b y z r o g u o r a z i n ­ strumenty muzyczne. * * 5 l i p c a o t w a r t a została w M u ­ zeum Etnograficznym w Toruniu w y s t a w a „Sfetuka l u d o w a i rzemiosło Polski północnej", zorganizowana w r a m a c h obchodów m i l l e n i j n y c h . Wystawa obejmuje zabytkową i współczesną twórczość ludową z t e r e n ó w w o j . b y d g o s k i e g o i sąsied­ n i c h : pokazano bogate kolekcje t k a ­ n i n i strojów, c e r a m i k i , m e b l i i w y ­ W Suchej c z y n n a była w s i e r p ­ n i u w y s t a w a „Ziemia suska wczo­ r a j i dziś" zorganizowana w r a m a c h ogólnopolskiego konkursu krajo­ z n a w c z e g o p . n . „ P r z e z dziesięć w i e ­ ków". Krajoznawcom pomogli Wydz. K u l t . PRN, P T T K i inne instytucje. W y s t a w a ilustrowała historię S u c h e j , M a k o w a i J o r d a n o w a o r a z sztukę ludową i c h okolic. Pokazano m o - narzędzia O b c h o d y D n i F o l k l o r u urządzone przez Wydz. K u l t . R a d N a r o d o w y c h WDK i stowarzyszenia regionalne w t y m r o k u już p o r a z d r u g i ( w s i e r p n i u i w r z e ś n i u ) w y r a ź n i e się rozwijają. W różnych regionach, p r z e d e w s z y s t k i m w P o l s c e połud­ n i o w e j , w Kielecczyźnie i n a Po­ morzu Gdańskim zorganizowano l i c z n e i m p r e z y mające n a c e l u oży­ wienie i spopularyzowanie sztuki l u d o w e j i f o l k l o r u , zarówno wśród ludności m i e j s c o w e j , j a k turystów, także z a g r a n i c z n y c h . O d b y ł y się r o z ­ m a i t e w y s t ę p y i k o n k u r s y zespołów pieśni i tańca, k a p e l ludowych, amatorskie przedstawienia teatralne ilustrujące t r a d y c y j n e obrzędy, j a r ­ m a r k i i kiermasze wyrobów ludo­ w y c h , spotkania z twórcami i w y ­ s t a w y s z t u k i l u d o w e j . Poniżej w y ­ m i e n i a m y ciekawsze imprezy. * Dni 11.IX.) Świętokrzyskie (28. V I I I . — n a Świętej K a t a r z y n i e , w 229 �Bodzentynie i Kielcach. Zorganizo­ wano wielki jarmark (Bodzentyn) n a k t ó r y m o b o k straganów stanęły w a r s z t a t y g a r n c a r z y (S. S o w i ń s k i e ­ go, A . Głuszka z Chałupek), r z e ź ­ b i a r z a (A. Zegadły z K r z y ż k i ) , oraz tkaczek z Bodzentyna i plecionkarzy. W K i e l c a c h urządzono p o ­ konkursową wystawę kowalstwa, m a l a r s t w a i rzeźby l u d o w e j w s a l i W D K . O r g a n i z o w a l i ją: W y d z . K u l t . P W R N w K i e l c a c h , Izba Rzemieśl­ nicza oraz W D K . E k s p o n a t y cecho­ w a ł w y r ó w n a n y i d o b r y n a ogół poziom. Uczestniczyli w wystawie t w ó r c y z n a n i już z wcześniejszych i m p r e z tego r o d z a j u . * D n i Opoczyńskie ( 2 1 . V I I I . - 1 1 . I X . ) w Opocznie. Urządzono k o n k u r s g a ­ wędziarzy, k a p e l i ś p i e w a k ó w o r a z wystawę sztuki l u d o w e j w salach l i c e u m ogólnokształcącego. Pokaza­ no stroje i t k a c t w o , w y c i n a n k i , p a ­ jąki, k w i a t y s z t u c z n e , p i s a n k i i p l e ­ cionki. * D n i f o l k l o r u Pogórza w Bieczu (3—4.IX.). O d b y ł y się w y s t ę p y z e ­ społów r e g i o n a l n y c h z R z e s z o w s k i e ­ go o r a z w i e l k i , d w u d n i o w y k i e r ­ masz w y r o b ó w l u d o w y c h i p a m i ą t ­ karskich. * Dzień Z a l i p i a ( 4 . I X . ) w Z a l i p i u . Z w i e d z a n i e m a l o w a n y c h c h a t i obejść gospodarskich i kiermasz sztuki l u ­ d o w e j n a k t ó r y m znalazły się m . i n . skrzynie malowane, hafty, w y c i n a n ­ ki,, w y d m u s z k i , b u k i e t y , pająki. i * Jesień Tatrzańska ( 4 - 1 1 . I X . ) . W Z a k o p a n e m odbył się m . i n . f e s t i w a l zespołów r e g i o n a l n y c h z i e m gór­ s k i c h . Uczestniczyło w n i m 12 z e ­ społów s p o d T a t r , B i e s z c z a d i B e s ­ kidów. P i e r w s z e n a g r o d y p r z y z n a n o Zespołowi im. Klimka Bachledy przy Związku P o d h a l a n z Z a k o p a n e ­ go i zespołowi H a r n a s i e p r z y M i ­ n e r a l n e j Spółdzielni P r a c y z P o r o ­ nina. W sali B W A w Z a k o p a n e m o t w a r t a została w y s t a w a „Region Podhala", zorganizowana przez ZPAP, Zakopiańskie Warsztaty W z o r c o w e , CepeUę i M u z e u m T a ­ trzańskie. Pokazano snycerkę w drewnie, meble, tkaniny, wyroby ze skóry, s t r o j e i współczesne m a ­ l a r s t w o n a szkle. N a O r a w i e o b c h o d z o n o uroczyś­ cie 11'0-lecie m u z e u m s k a n s e n o w s k i e ­ go w Z u b r z y c y G ó r n e j . O d b y ł y się występy zespołów r e g i o n a l n y c h z O r a w y . W Jabłonce o t w a r t a została w sali l i c e u m ogólnokształcącego w y s t a w a „Piękno O r a w y " z o r g a n i ­ z o w a n a przez M u z e u m Tatrzańskie w Z a k o p a n e m ze z b i o r ó w włas­ nych. kresu Pokazano p r z e d m i o t y z za­ s z t u k i i rzemiosła l u d o w e g o . * Gdańskie D n i F o l k l o r u ( 1 1 - 2 9 . I X ) K w i d z y n , Gdańsk, K a r t u z y . W G d a ń ­ s k u urządzono s p o t k a n i e z twórca­ m i l u d o w y m i połączone z o t w a r ­ ciem wystawy sztuki ludowej w o j . gdańskiego, w g m a c h u P r e z . W R N . Na w y s t a w i e pokazano, podobnie j a k na o m a w i a n y c h wyżej w y s t a ­ w a c h sztuki l u d o w e j Pomorza Gdań­ skiego, p r a c e czołowych twórców l u d o w y c h działających n a t y m t e ­ r e n i e . W y r ó ż n i a ł y się p i ę k n e s z m a ciaki z pow. Puck, ptaszki drew­ n i a n e W . P r z y b y l s k i e g o ze S z t u m u , c e r a m i k a J . Kaźmierczaka z K a r t u z i plecionki z Wdzydz. * D n i Zielonej Góry (26.IX.-2.X). W o k r e s i e t y m o d b y ł się w Z i e l o ­ nej Górze I I Międzynarodowy Festi­ w a l z e s p o ł ó w pieśni i tańca. U c z e s t ­ niczyło w n i m 10 z e s p o ł ó w z B u ł ­ g a r i i , Czechosłowacji, F r a n c j i , N R D , R u m u n i i , Węgier, G r u z j i oraz p o l ­ s k i e zespoły „ L a c h y " z z i e m i sądec­ k i e j , dolnośląski „ W r o c ł a w " i Z e ­ spół Pieśni i T a ń c a Z i e m i L u b u ­ skiej. W M u z e u m o t w a r t o z okazji „ D n i " w y s t a w ę p n . „Sztuka l u d o w a Opola". Pokazano na niej t r a d y c y j ­ n e sprzęty, t k a c t w o i h a f t , p r z e d ­ mioty zdobione snycerką, stroje, rzeźbę w drzewie. k a m y s k a r b ó w T y s i ą c l e c i a " . Są to z a b y t k o w e narzędzia i sprzęty gos­ podarskie. Wystawa pokazywana była także n a dożynkach gromadz­ kich w Dankowicach i powiatowych w Oświęcimiu. * W regionalnej izbie muzealnej w Głuchej P u s z c z y k o ł o M o g i l n a urządzono w e w r z e ś n i u , w związku z o b c h o d a m i D n i M o g i l n a , wystawę p n . „ Z i e m i a m o g i l n e ń s k a w Tysiąc­ leciu". W dziale sztuki ludowej p o k a z a n o r z e ź b y w d r z e w i e , ptasz­ k i , h a f t y oraz p i e r n i k i K. Pijanows k i e g o z Mieściska. * W klubie M P i K w Kielcach m i e j s c o w y oddział T P S P zorganizo­ wał w e wrześniu indywidualną w y ­ stawę rzeźb H e n r y k a Zegadły z K r z y ż k i , p o w . K i e l c e . 50 rzeźb w drzewie pokazanych n a wystawie stanowiło interesujący przykład twórczości ś w i a d o m i e nawiązującej d o t r a d c y j n e j r z e ź b y l u d o w e j ii po­ zostającej w W i m a c i e l u d o w y c h po­ dań i baśni. Z a r ó w n o scenariusz w y s t a w y , j e j o p r a w ę plastyczną, j a k k a t a l o g o p r a c o w a ł s a m Zegadło. K a t a l o g — W y s t a w a rzeźb Hen­ r y k a Z e g a d ł y , K i e l c e 1966 г., s. 20 nłb. i l . 22. Z a w i e r a s ł o w o wstępne Z e g a d ł y o s o b i e o r a z spis e k s p o n a ­ tów. * * M u z e u m Regionalne w R a d o m i u urządziło w e wrześniu, z o k a z j i D n i Radomia, wystawę p n . „Kultura l u ­ dowa regionu radomskiego". Poka­ zano e k s p o n a t y p r z e w a ż n i e nowo nabyte. Scenariusz w y s t a w y o p r a ­ c o w a n y został p o d k ą t e m u k a z a n i a w a r s z t a t u p r a c y w i e j s k i c h rzemieśl­ ników, artystów i rolników. C e n t r a l n e D o ż y n k i o d b y ł y się d o ­ rocznym zwyczajem w Warszawie (4.IX.). Z o k a z j i obchodów Tysiąc­ lecia o r g a n i z a t o r z y p o s t a r a l i się o szczególnie m o c n e u w y d a t n i e n i e i c h tradycyjnej części f o l k l o r y s t y c z n e j . Na podstawie literatury etnograficz­ nej starannie opracowano kopie wieńców i strojów dożynkowych, a także choreografię p o c h o d u w którym reprezentowane były g r u p y regionalne ze wszystkich woje­ wództw. W i d o w i s k o folklorystyczne o p r a c o w u j e o d 1952 r . t e n s a m z e ­ spół a r t y s t ó w p l a s t y k ó w , a r e ż y s e ­ ruje J . Mierzejewska. * W Starej W s i , p o w . Oświęcim, w s a l i g i m n a s t y c z n e j szkoły p o d ­ s t a w o w e j n a u c z y c i e l St. S i e c z k a z o r ­ ganizował w e wrześniu w y s t a w ę ze­ b r a n y c h przez siebie i dzieci szkol­ ne eksponatów n a k o n k u r s p n . „Szu­ W e wrześniu o t w a r t a była w Sztokholmie, w salach D o m u K u l ­ t u r y w dzielnicy Haegerstens, w y ­ s t a w a N i k i f o r a . W y s t a w a składała się ze 107 o b r a z ó w , k t ó r e d o końca g r u d n i a p o k a z y w a n e b y ł y w róż­ n y c h m i a s t a c h S z w e c j i . W s t ę p do k a t a l o g u napisał G u n n a i r . H e l l e m i a n . * Z o k a z j i D n i K u l t u r y Rumuń­ skiej w Warszawie o t w a r t a była w y s t a w a rumuńskiej sztuki ludo­ wej. Pokazano d y w a n y z Oltenii i B u k o w i n y , c e r a m i k ę z różnych r e g i o n ó w , s n y c e r k ę w d r e w n i e górali k a r p a c k i c h , s t r o j e l u d o w e i zabaw­ k i dziecięce. * W M u z e u m N a r o d o w y m w War­ s z a w i e z o r g a n i z o w a n a została przy p o m o c y i z i n i c j a t y w y Państwowego M u z e u m Etnograficznego wystawa p n . „Masąual" — Rzeźba ludowa krzyży etiopskich. Na wystawie z g r o m a d z o n o 150 k r z y ż y z d r e w n a i m e t a l u , z e b r a n y c h w ciągu 10 l a t p o s z u k i w a ń p r o w a d z o n y c h przez dr W . K o r a b i e w i c z a . K r z y ż e Ite są uży­ w a n e przez w ę d r o w n y c h mnichów — żebraków i t r a d y c y j n i e w y k o n y w a ­ ne b y ł y p r z e z n i c h s a m y c h l u b przez rzeźbiarzy l u d o w y c h . Kolek­ c j a K o r a b i e w i c z a j e s t największym t e g o r o d z a j u z b i o r e m w s k a l i świa­ towej. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/debf66fa10225ecb3b22c1fffc89d8a6.pdf cd6d9b59b2e8c2d56e4ded120249c5ae Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4947 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4586 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.1; s.63-64 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY No. 1 I S PUBLISHED H F O B Y T H EA R T INSTITUTE YEAR BOOK L OF THE K POLISH XXI A ACADEMY R T O F SCIENCES 1967 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES A l e k s a n d e r J a c k o w s k i — PROBLEMS OF AMATEUR ART. T h e a u t h o r p o i n t s t o t h e m a n y meanings of t h e word "amateur", showing h o w its content changes i n various fields o f creative a r t (literature, t h e theatre, art). There a r e fields i n w h i c h t h e t e r m " a m a t e u r " i s not used, f o r instance, i n m u s i c a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h i c h call f o r serious studies i n o r d e r t o m a s t e r t h e p r o ­ fessional w o r k m a n s h i p . D i f f e r e n t i s t h e role p l a y e d b y a m a t e u r dance o r d r a m a groups, w h i c h have a n i n f l u e n ­ ce i n r a i s i n g t h e c u l t u r a l l e v e l , a n d d i f f e r e n t i s t h a t of a m a t e u r a r t , t h e m a i n v a l u e o f w h i c h c o n s i s t s i n i t s solving the psychical problems of t h e artist himself. B y t h e w o r d " a m a t e u r " w e understand a person e n ­ gaged i n a r t n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l l y , w i t h o u t s e l f - k n o w l e d g e and disinterestedly. B u t here a d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t b e made between t h e a r t o f amateurs a n d t h e a r t o f children and folk art. A t t h e s a m e t i m e — as t h e a u t h o r p o i n t s o u t — the borderline between professional and non-professional art i s becoming ever more fluid i n view of t h e n e w trends i n modern art, w h i c h reject r i g i d rules i n favour of f r e s h c r e a t i v e i n v e n t i v e n e s s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , m a n y professional artists deliberately follow t h e line o f t h e " n a i v e " artists a n d m a n y a m a t e u r s t r y t o copy the p r o ­ fessional a r t they are h a v i n g m o r e and m o r e o p p o r t u n i t y of seeing a t e x h i b i t i o n s , b y l o o k i n g a t r e p r o d u c t i o n s a n d w a t c h i n g television, etc. O f course, t h e r e i s a v e r y essential difference i n t h e a m o u n t o f (knowledge o f t h e amateur-autodidact a n d t h e graduate f r o m a n a r t aca­ demy. T h e r e a l m of amateur a r t embraces very varied p h e n o m e n a : i n t h e r u r a l areas w e f i n d w o r k s o n t h e borderline of folk art, i n t h e towns — w o r k s produced i n v a r i o u s m i l i e u s o n t h e basis o f v a r i o u s cultural patterns. T h e author examines different vocational groups, p o i n t i n g o u t h o w different vocations influence t h e a r t i s t i c w o r k done b y people b e l o n g i n g to these groups. B u t the decisive role i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between the w o r k s done b y amateur artists i s plaved b y t h e versatility of their outlook and the motives behind their w o r k . F o rsome i t is a f o r m of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c u l t u r a l life, f o r others a n escape f r o m t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s , a n e n r i c h m e n t o r t h e o n l y m e a n i n g o f t h e i r l i v e s , a -com­ pensation; sometimes f o r people w h o a r e " m i s f i t s " , f o r p e o p l e w i t h obsessions, ilt i s a w a y o f f r e e i n g t h e m s e l ­ ves o f t h e i r f e a r s . the custom o f founders p r e s e n t i n g pictures, t h a t is, i n t h e b r o a d e s t sense o f t h i s n o t i o n . T h e m o s t v o t i v e pictures are t o be f o u n d i n G e r m a n y , I t a l y , S w i t z e r l a n d , France, Spain and Portugal. I n Poland, the largest n u m ­ ber of such p i c t u r e s is t o b e f o u n d i n Silesia. T h e oldest set o f p i c t u r e s i n P o l a n d a r e t h o s e f r o m P i o t r a w i n (17th c e n t u r y ) , w h i l e t h e g r o u p o f f o l k v o t i v e p i c t u r e s f r o m the Chapel of t h e V i r g i n M a r y i n t h e D o m i n i c a n C h u r c h a t G i d l e (85 p i c t u r e s ) a n d t h e g r o u p o f p i c t u r e s f r o m K a l w a r i a P a c l a w s k a (27) d a t e b a c k t o t h e 1 9 t h century. T h e a u t h o r s d i s c u s s t h e g r o u p o f 22 v o t i v e p i c t u r e s from t h e Corpus Christi C h u r c h i n Cracow, connected w i t h t h e c u l t o f Stanisław f r o m K a z i m i e r z . T h e y w e r e p a i n t e d i n the 17th a n d 18th c e n t u r y . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e reasons f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p i c t u r e s , t h e a u t h o r s have divided t h e m into three groups. T h e first group, c o m p r i s i n g t h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r o f p i c t u r e s (12) h a v e as their subject t h e miraculous healing of ailments of the b o d y a n d s o u l ; t h e second g r o u p h a s m o t h e r h o o d as t h e s u b j e c t a n d t h e t h i r d g r o u p a r e v o t i v e p i c t u r e s presented i n t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r salvation f r o m cataclysms (war, fire, t h e plague). A s regards style, t h e pictures f r o m t h e C o r p u s C h r i s t i C h u r c h also f o r m t h r e e g r o u p s . The first of them a r e pictures of t h e most p r i m i t i v e type, flat paintings of very simple composition. S t a n i ­ sław K a z i m i e r c z y k is seen a t t h e side o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y as a n i n t e r c e s s o r , n o t o n e w h o i n t e r v e n e s d i r e c t l y . T h e second g r o u p consists of seven p i c t u r e s w h i c h w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t v o t i v e ones b u t p a r t o f a l a r g e c o m p o s i t i o n showing t h e life and t h e miracles performed b y Stani­ sław o f K a z i m i e r z . T h i s k i n d o f p i c t u r e w a s f o u n d at t h e end of the 16th c e n t u r y a n d i n t h e 17th c e n t u r y . T h e y w e r e a sort o f " r e a d y - m a d e p a t t e r n " t o b e copied b y t h e less t a l e n t e d g u i l d p a i n t e r s . T h e r e p e t i t i o n o f certain compositional f o r m s i n the seven pictures allows of t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y f o r m e d a s u r r o u n d i n g set o f p i c t u r e s f o r t h e m a i n scene w i t h t h e f i g u r e of S t a n i s ł a w o f K a z i m i e r z . T h e t h i r d g r o u p o f p i c t u r e s a r e l a r g e scenes w i t h a large n u m b e r of figures i n them, t h e interiors i n w h i c h t h e y a r e s h o w n b e i n g f u l l o f f u r n i t u r e , etc. T h e presentation of t h e perspective and architecture of t h e i n t e r i o r s i s p r i m i t i v e , f l a t , a n d t h e f i g u r e s a r e also a p r i ­ mitive attempt at conveying reality. This group of pic­ t u r e s h a s t h e c o m m o n f e a t u r e of s h o w i n g Stanisław f r o m K a z i m i e r z i n a w r e a t h of clouds. T h e characteristic T h e w o r k of lamateurs calls f o r v a r i e d f o r m s o f care. General discussions o f t h e k i n d : t o t r a i n t h e m o r n o t c o m m o n features i n d i c a t e that the pictures w e r e p a i n t e d by one artist. They were probably" ordered f o rt h e to t r a i n t h e m a r e of n o use. T h e r e a r e people w i t h p u r p o s e o f p o p u l a r i z i n g t h e c u l t o f Stanisław o f K a z i ­ t h e t r a i t s o f p r i m i t i v e s , t h e n a i v e , etc. a n d t h e r e w o u l d mierz. b e n o sense i n t r a i n i n g t h e m . (But t h e r e ane also p e o p l e w h o s h o u l d b e giiven a m e a s u r e o f k n o w l e d g e . I n t h e The pictures f r o m the Corpus Christi Church do not author's opinion, t h e organization o f circles w i t h a r e ­ differ f r o m t h e votive pictures t o be f o u n d a l l over g u l a r p r o g r a m m e o f s t u d y idoes n o t a n s w e r t h e p u r p o s e , E u r o p e as r e g a r d s c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e scenes. T h o s e tor they are a sort of substitute f o r t r a i n i n g at a n aca­ w h i c h h a v e a i l m e n t s as t h e i r s u b j e c t u s u a l l y s h o w d e m y a n d arouse false a m b i t i o n s a n d pretensions. a p e r s o n i n b e d ( f i g 4) o r t h e f i g u r e o f a p e r s o n w h o s e health has been restored p r a y i n g i n t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r Exhibitions of t h e w o r k o f amateurs a r e desirable his m i r a c u l o u s recovery. T h e t h a n k s g i v i n g p i c t u r e s w i t h b o t h as r e g a r d s t h e i r s o c i a l a s p e c t ( e v e n p o p u l a r i z a t i o n ) m o t h e r h o o d as t h e i r s u b j e c t s h o w a w o m a n i n b e d and f o r t h e artists themselves. T h e most interesting for h e r confinement or a n e w born baby surrounded are t h e e x h i b i t i o n s arranged i n t h e artists' o w n m i l i e u b y i t s f a m i l y p r a y i n g f o r i t s h e a l t h ( f i g . 5). A s r e g a r d s (for i n s t a n c e , r a i l w a y - m e n , office w o r k e r s i n s o m e i n ­ p i c t u r e s w i t h t h e p l a g u e as t h e i r s u b j e c t , t h e r e a r e t w o s t i t u t i o n , m i n e r s , etc.). P u b l i c e x h i b i t i o n s m u s t b e v e r y carefully selected so as n o t t o p o p u l a r i z e b a d a r t . t y p e s : a v i e w o f a t o w n w i t h b o d i e s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d ( f i g . 9) o r r o w s b e d s w i t h p a t i e n t s i n t h e m ( f i g . 8). The a u t h o r is o f the opinion that a w a r d i n g prizes i s not a good t h i n g , f o r t h i s a l w a y s arouses b i t t e r n e s s 'among I n conclusion t h e authors say that i n Poland t h e others, t h e criteria of e v a l u a t i o n a r e n o t understood m a j o r i t y of genuine votive pictures were lost d u r i n g and give rise t o protests. Professional artists prefer the w a r o r perished b y t h e n a t u r a l process o f age. "fresh", p r i m i t i v e w o r k s and most lamateurs value t h e Most of t h e pictures that have been preserved i n P o ­ a m o u n t o f w o r k p u t onto t h e a r t a n d s k i l l e d w o r k m a n ­ l a n d a r e n e w ones t h a t a r e c o p i e s o f t h e o l d ones o r ship. are pictures i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e miracles performed b y saints. E w a Snieźyńska-Stolot, S t e f a n i a K r z y s z t o f o w i c z — VOTIVE PICTURES FROM T H E B e r n a d e t t ę T u r n o — JAN NIKIEL — PAIN­ CORPUS C H R I S T I C H U R C H I N C R A C O W . T h e custom T E R O F B I E L S K O B I A Ł A . N i k i e l is one o f t h e most authentic primitives i n Polish naive painting. H e w a s of h a n g i n g v o t i v e p i c t u r e s o n w a l l s i s q u i t e g e n e r a l . T h i s c u s t o m i s k n o w n i n E u r o p e f r o m t h e 1 4 t h c e n t u r y , b o r n i n 190'8. N i k i e l w a s a s h o e m a k e r a n d t r a v e l l e d a n d i t s most f l o u r i s h i n g p e r i o d of d e v e l o p m e n t w a s a t a l o t i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s o n foot. H e p a i n t s f r o m the t u r n o f the 17th a n d 18th centuries. I t s o r i g i n is i n m e m o r y , his preference b e i n g f o r a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t o w n s . �П О Л Ь С К О Е КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ № Н А Р О Д Н О Е ЖУРНАЛ, ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ 1 ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ГОД И З Д А Н И Я XXI И С К У С С Т В О ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК 1967 РЕЗЮМЕ А л е к с а н д р ь Я ц к о в с к и й — ПРОБЛЕМЫ ЛЮ­ БИТЕЛЬСКОГО ИЗОБРАЗИТЕЛЬНОГО ИССКУОСТВА А в т о р обращает внимание на м н о г о з н а ч н о с т ь п о ­ нятия „ л ю б и т е л ь " , у к а з ы в а я на р а з л и ч н о е с о д е р ж а ­ н и е этого п о н я т и я в зависимости от вида творчества (литература, театр, и з о б р а з и т е л ь н о е и с к у с с т в о ) . Е с т ь т а к и е о б л а с т и искусства, п о о т н о ш е н и ю к к о т о р ы м п о н я т и е „ л ю б и т е л ь " неприменимо, как, например, м у ­ зыка и архитектура, требующие серьезной подготов­ к и ; и н а ч е о в л а д е т ь этим у м е н и е м н е л ь з я . О д н у р о л ь исполняют самодеятельные танцевальные или теа­ т р а л ь н ы е ансамбли, к о т о р ы е с п о с о б с т в у ю т п о в ы ш е н и ю к у л ь т у р н о г о у р о в н я , а и н у ю творчество л ю б и т е л е й ; его о б щ е с т в е н н о е значение з а к л ю ч а е т с я г л а в н ы м о б ­ разом в том, что оно у д о в л е т в о р я е т п с и х и к у творца. п р и н я т о говорить по п о л ь с к и — довольно широко распространен. В Е в р о п е этот о б ы ч а й и з в е с т е н с X I V века, причем с а м о й б о л ь ш о й п о п у л я р н о с т ь ю о н п о л ь ­ з о в а л с я на п е р е л о м е X V I I — X V I I I вв. Свое н а ч а л о о б ы ч а й этот берет от ш и р о к о г о п о н я т и я п о ж е р т в о в а н ­ н ы х образов (портрета основателя данного х р а м а ) . С а м ы м и б о л ь ш и м и средоточиями этого рода образков б ы л и Германия, И т а л и я , Ш в е й ц а р и я , Ф р а н ц и я , И с п а ­ ния и Португалия. В П о л ь ш е наиболее многочислен­ н ы е г р у п п ы встречаются в С и л е з и и . С т а р е й ш и м с о б ­ ранием в П о л ь ш е я в л я ю т с я о б р а з к и в П и о т р а в и н е ( X V I I в.), а с о б р а н и е н а р о д н ы х п р и н о ш е н и й ( „ в о т " ) из часовни Богоматери п р и Доминик анак ом к о с т е л е в Гидлях (85 образков) и с о б р а н и е и з П а ц л а в о к о й К а л ь в а р и и (27) д а т и р у ю т с я X I X в. П о н я т и е „ л ю б и т е л ь " обозначает к о г о - т о , к т о б е с ­ к о р ы с т н о занимается искусством н е б у д у ч и п р о ф е с с и о ­ н а л о м , н е и м е я д о с т а т о ч н о й с п е ц и а л ь н о й подготовки. Н о с л е д у е т о т л и ч и т ь л ю б и т е л ь с т в о от творчества д е ­ тей и народного (искусства. Одновременно •— к а к у т в е р ж д а е т автор — граница между профессиональным и непрофессиональным искусством все б о л е е с т у ш е в ы в а е т с я в в и д у н о в ы х т е н д е н ц и й с о в р е м е н н о г о искусства, к о т о р о е о т б р а с ы ­ вает з а с т ы в ш и е п р а в и л а в п о л ь з у н о в ы х т в о р ч е с к и х поисков. С одной с т о р о н ы м н о г и е п р о ф е с с и о н а л ь н ы е художники сознательно приобщаются к искусству „ н а и в н ы х " , в то время к а к многие л ю б и т е л и о б р а ­ щ а ю т с я к п р о ф е с с и о н а л ь н о м у искусству, с к о т о р ы м они з н а к о м я т с я б л а г о д а р я выставкам, р е п р о д у к ц и я м , т е л е в и д е н и ю и т.д. Р а з у м е е т с я м е ж д у с а м о у ч к о й и в ы ­ пускником высшей художественной ш к о л ы существует разница в с м ы с л е н а к о п л е н н ы х знаний. А в т о р ы статьи о п и с ы в а ю т собрание 22 „ в о т " и з костела „ Б о ж е т е л о " в Кракове, связанных с культом Станислава и з К а з и м е ж а . Они п р о и с х о д я т с XVII и X V I I I вв. У ч и т ы в а я п р и ч и н ы , в ы з в а в ш и е в о г и в н ы е п р и н о ш е н и я , а в т о р ы д е л я т и х на три г р у п п ы . П е р ­ вая, самая м н о г о ч и с л е н н а я , состоит и з 12 образков, связанных с чудесным исцелением д у ш и и тела; вто­ р а я группа п о с в я щ е н а тематике материнства, а т р е т ь я —• это п р и н о ш е н и я в б л а г о д а р н о с т ь за опасение от бедствий (война, п о ж а р , э п и д е м и я ) . Ч т о касается с т и л я и характера „вот" описываемого костела, то они т а к ж е д е л я т с я на три г р у п п ы . К первой п р и н а д л е ж а т три с а м ы х п р и м и т и в н ы х с п л о с к и м р и с у н к о м и очень у п р о щ е н н о й композицией. С т а н и с л а в К а з и м е р ч и к в ы ­ с т у п а е т здесь р я д о м с Д е в о й М а р и е й , к а к ее з а с т у п ­ ник. К о второй г р у п п е п р и н а д л е ж и т с е м ь образков, к о т о р ы е п о всей вероятности не я в л я ю т с я п р и н о ш е ­ ниями, а с о с т а в л я ю т часть к р у п н о й композиции, от­ о б р а ж а ю щ е й ж и з н ь и чудеса, т в о р и м ы е С т а н и с л а в о м К а з и м е р ч и к о м . Э т о г о р о д а р и с у н к и относятся к концу X V I и X V I I вв.; они б ы л и в своем р о д е „ г о т о в ы м и о б р а з ц а м и " д л я м е н е е с п о с о б н ы х ц е х о в ы х мастеров. П о с к о л ь к у во всех о б р а з к а х этой г р у п п ы п о в т о р я ю т ­ ся о д н и и т е ж е к о м п о з и ц и о н н ы е с х е м ы , то надо д у ­ мать, что они с о с т а в л я л и о б щ и й ф о н г л а в н о й с ц е н ы с ф и г у р о й С т а н и с л а в а К а з и м е р ч и к а в центре. Д и а п а з о н л ю б и т е л ь с к о г о искусства в к л ю ч а е т р а з ­ н о р о д н е й ш и е я в л е н и я : в д е р е в н е оно граничит с н а ­ р о д н ы м творчеством, в городе, — в зависимости от среды, — опирается на р а з л и ч н ы е к у л ь т у р н ы е о б ­ р а з ц ы . А в т о р с т а т ь и расматривает о т д е л ь н ы е п р о ­ фессиональные группы, отмечая влияние профессии на л ю б и т е л ь с к о е творчество. О д н а к о р е ш а ю щ у ю р о л ь в р а з н о о б р а з и и иакусетва л ю б и т е л е й и г р а ю т и х п о ­ буждения, и х отношение к творчеству. Д л я одних — это ф о р м а у ч а с т и я в к у л ь т у р н о й ж и з н и , д л я д р у г и х — опасение от о к р у ж а ю щ е й обстановки, о б о г а щ е н и е с у т и своей ж и з н и , и л и е д и н с т в е н н ы й ее с м ы с л , в о з м е щ е н и е д р у г и х ц е н н о с т е й ; иногда у л ю д е й , не и м е ю щ и х о б ­ щего языка с окружающими, у людей травмирован­ н ы х , — это е д и н с т в е н н ы й способ избавиться от ч у в ­ ства неуверенности, н е п о л н о ц е н н о с т и . Творчество любителей требует р а з л и ч н ы х форм п о м о щ и и з а б о т ы . О б щ и е д и с к у с с и и на т е м у : у ч и т ь и л и не у ч и т ь — б е с п о л е з н ы . Есть л ю д и п р и м и т и в н ы е , н а и в н ы е и т.п., к о т о р ы х не и м е е т с м ы с л а у ч и т ь . Н о есть т а к ж е л ю д и , к о т о р ы е д о л ж н ы п р и о б р е т а т ь и з ­ в е с т н у ю юумму знаний. П о м н е н и ю автора н е с л е д у е т у с т р а и в а т ь ц е н т р ы подготовки с о п р е д е л е н н о й п р о ­ граммой о б у ч е н и я , я в л я ю щ и е с я п а р о д и е й академий, п р о б у ж д а ю щ и е н е о б о с н о в а н н ы е претензии. В ы с т а в к и л ю б и т е л ь с к и х работ и г р а ю т о б щ е с т в е н ­ н у ю р о л ь (хотя б ы в с м ы с л е п о п у л я р и з а ц и и ) , и имеют т а к ж е б о л ь ш о е з н а ч е н и е д л я с а м и х творцов. С а м ы м и интересными являются выставки в собственной среде л ю б и т е л е й ( ж е л е з н о д о р о ж н и к о в , горняков, р а б о т н и ­ к о в к а к о г о - н и б у д ь у ч р е ж д е н и я и т.д.). Публичные в ы с т а в к и надо готовить о ч е н ь с т а р а т е л ь н о , у д е л я я б о л ь ш о е внимание п о д б о р к е экспонатов во и з б е ж а н и е распространения п л о х о г о искусства. П р е м и й автор н е одобряет считая, что они в ы з ы в а ю т л и ш ь н е д о в о л ь ­ ство и р а з д р а ж е н и е д р у г и х , к р и т е р и и оценок н е п о н я т ­ н ы и являются причиной возмущения. Х у д о ж н и к и •— пластики отдают п р е д п о ч т е н и е „свежим" работам, Примитивам, в то в р е м я к а к б о л ь ш и н с т в о л ю б и т е л е й ценит в к л а д у с и л и й в работу, у м е н и е работать. 5 Эва С н е ж и н ь е к а - С т о л о т , Стефания К ж и ш т о ф о в и ч — ДАРСТВЕННЫЕ ОБРАЗКИ ( „ v o t a " ) из к о с т е л а „ Б о ж е т е л о " (Boże C i a ł o ) в К р а к о в е . О б ы ч а й в е ш а т ь д а р с т в е н н ы е образки „ в о т а " — как 64 Т р е т ь я группа — это р а з в е р н у т ы е с ц е н ы с о м н о ­ гими л и ц а м и и интерьерами, з а п о л н е н н ы м и п р е д м е ­ тами. П е р с п е к т и в ы и н т е р ь е р о в и а р х и т е к т у р а п л о с к и е , примитивные, п о п ы т к и с д е л а т ь ф и г у р ы б о л е е р е л ь е ф ­ н ы м и т а к ж е п р и м и т и в н ы . Эту г р у п п у х а р а к т е р и з у е т о д и н а к о в ы й способ о т о б р а ж е н и я С т а н и с л а в а и з К а з и ­ м е ж а в в е н ч и к е и з о б л а к о в . П р и с у щ и е им всем х а р а к ­ т е р н ы е ч е р т ы с в и д е т е л ь с т в у ю т о том, ч т о они п р и ­ н а д л е ж а т одному автору и ч т о в с е эти о б р а з к и б ы л и , вероятно, в ы п о л н е н ы по з а к а з у ш т а т н ы х к а н о н и к о в в целях популяризации культа Станислава Кази­ мерчика. П о к о м п о з и ц и и сцен о б р а з к и и з к о с т е л а „ Б о ж е т е л о " не о т л и ч а ю т с я от р а с п р о с т р а н е н н ы х в Е в р о п е типов в о т и в н ы х п р и н о ш е н и й . „ В о т а " с т е м а т и к о й болезней показывают б о л ь н ы х в постели (илл. 4) л и б о в ы з д о р а в л и в а ю щ е г о , к о т о р ы й м о л и т с я , б л а г о д а р я за ч у д е с н о е и с ц е л е н и е . О б р а з к и с т е м а т и к о й материнства и з о б р а ж а ю т р о ж е н и ц у в п о с т е л и л и б о 'новорожденного м л а д е н ц а в о к р у ж е н и и семьи, м о л я щ е й с я за его з д р о р о в ь е ( и л л . 5). В с л у ч а я х эпидемии в ы с т у п а ю т два вида и з о б р а ж е н и й : ф р а г м е н т города с останками у м е р ­ ш и х на втором п л а н е ( и л л . 9) и л и р я д ы кроватей с б о л ь н ы м и ( и л л . 8). В з а к л ю ч е н и е а в т о р ы статьи у т в е р ж д а ю т , ч т о в П о л ь ш е большинство подлинных „вот" погибло во время войн и л и ж е п о д в е р г л о с ь естественной п о р ч е . Б о л ь ш и н с т в о с о х р а н и в ш и х с я в П о л ь ш е собраний — это новые, в о о е с т а н о в л е н н ы е о б р а з к и и л и ж е о б р а з ­ к и - и л л ю с т р а ц и и с о в е р ш е н н ы х святыми ч у д е с . Б е р н а д е т т а Т у р н о — ЯН НИКЕЛЬ — Ж И В О ­ П И С Е Ц И З Б Е Л Ь С К А - Б Я Л А . Никель принадлежит к с а м ы м п о д л и н н ы м примитивам в п о л ь с к о й „ н а и в ­ ной" живописи. 1908 года р о ж д е н и я , с а п о ж н и к п о п р о ф е с с и и , Н и к е л ь странствовал п е ш к о м п о р а з л и ч ­ н ы м странам. Он р и с у е т п о п а м я т и о х о т н е е всего г о ­ рода и г о р о д с к у ю а р х и т е к т у р у . � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/4616cd623f1101033aaf434a714c36a4.pdf 5624c0e70e7fc87452f3831f867d23a7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4598 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.2; s.121-123 Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Type The nature or genre of the resource czas. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S F H QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE ART No. 2 O INSTITUTE YEAR ROOK SUMMARY OF J a c e k O l ę d z k i — SILVER V O T I V E OFFERINGS On the basis of m a t e r i a l collected i n places of pilgrimage, the author sums up the results o f his rese­ arch on silver votive offerings. To begin w i t h he discusses the customs connected w i t h votive offerings in Europe and Poland, their origin and analyses the forms of votive offerings and the intentions for w h i c h thev were made The art of the v o t i v e offerings is o n the' borderline between f o l k a r t and p r o f e s s i o n a l ' a r t , and no studies have been made of i t in Poland (apart f r o m votive n a l n t i n p s ) u n t i l n o w The a u t h o r discusses the art o f m a k i n c silver votive offerineГ in the f o r m of small iricomnlete figures and о ramvL on meial D i a t e s This art is a s s n c i a f e r ' w i t h Ь а п ^ я Д % ^ ^ Г я п ^ is found only sporadically i r T r u r a l areas The author distinguishes the following kinds o f votive offerings: 1) representations of saintlv and divine per­ sons connected w i t h the cult i n a given locality (fig. 3 and 4), 2) imaginative presentations of intentions i n the form of persons, animals, organs o f the human body (fig. 5), 3) combined representations o f saints w i t h intentions (fig. 12), The last mentioned f o r m is the latest, the first two being the original basic models i n the author's opinion. The author tries to establish the o r i g i n and social position of the donors o f the votive offerings. The silver votive offerings were certainly not only confined to the wealthy s t r a t a of the community. Many splendid votive offerings of great value were founded collectively, for instance, the one offered b v participants in a pilgrimage to Częstochowa (fig. 32). The images of members o f the gentry are to be seen o n many o f the votive offerings (and also the petty gentry). The votive offerings w i t h f a r m subjects seem to indicate the existence of" donors belonging to the r u r a l population. The donors o* many collective votive offerings wore the inhabitants of towns and townships, including urban plebians, Discussing the subjects o f the votive offerings, t h e author says that f a r m subjects are among the m o s t r a r e . There is a lack o f places of cult in Poland where votive offerings w i t h f a r m subjects are to be found i n a b u n ­ dance. A p a r t f r o m a small number representing f a r m animals (fig. 21 and 22) there are votive offerings i n the f o r m o f boats and ships i n the collections a t Chełmno and Czerwińsk" (fig. 26). The m a i n subject o f the votive offerings are personal affairs and interest i n man's health. This group includes votive offerings representing babies i n swaddling clothes and i n small coffins, hands, logs, hearts. The ones representing hands and arms' a r e a soecial symbol A t first thev were m a d e on t h e occasion o f miraculous recoveries f r o m illness' they w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y D o r J u l a r i n the" 19th centurv being found f u s t a'; freauentlv as hearts The author o u t s f o r w a r d the assumption " t h a t t h e m t e n t i o m fo7 w h i c h t h e y were m a d e " o beyond m e r e s t n h^ealth a n d thinks that the hand the a r m w i s Intended as а ч C h o i of alliance between t h e ' d o n o r of t h e votive n f f « W and the b e i n g i t venerated onerinc. A t the end of the 19th centurv, when the votive offerings began Ю be produced b v factories, there was an impoverishment o f their forms. A t present o n l v one k i n d o f votive offerings are produced, representing the f l a m i n g heart, i n several sizes. I n many European countries (among others in I t a l y and Greece)" we see an enrichment of the t r a d i t i o n a l forms b y new ones (votive offerings i n the f o r m o f cars and motor cycles). Mass production in factories has also had the influence of lessening the artistic values of votive offerings. Up t o the middle of the 19th centurv they were very varied both as regards f o r m and artistic values. This can be s e e n w i t h i n one centre of pilgrimages alone A p a r t from votive offerings s t r i k i n g for their fine w o r k m a n s h i o there others made by people i t h very l i t t l e t e c h n i ­ w L K OF T H E P O L I S H A ACADEMY OF XXI R T SCIENCES 19R7 ARTICLES cal s k i l l w h i c h are marked by p r i m i t i v i s m of f o r m and content. Discussing the artistic values of the votive offerings, the author touches upon the question of their decoration, Almost a l l the rectangular plates have decorated edges. I n many of them iconographic and ornamental patterns taken f r o m baroque and Renaissance goldsmitbery have been used. I t is d i f f i c u l t to establish the names of the people who made the votive offerings and their origin. I t is mostly anonymous w o r k . I n a few cases, i n the bigger centres of pilgrimage, there are goldsmith's marks and guild signs. There is also a lack of i n f o r m a t i o n i n archive materials about the makers of the votive offe­ rings. The production of silver votive offerings was side-line w o r k for goldsmiths. A large percentage of the producers were provincial craftsmen, and also "so-called .,botchers". I n his concluding remarks, the author says that even votive offerings executed on order of the wealthy were nearer to f o l k art i n their conventions than anly definite trend i n professional art. The production of silver votive offerings is charac­ terized bv great conventionality of artistic expression. The author puts f o r w a r d the thesis t h a t this was the result of factors other than m a t e r i a l , such as beliefs, and the attitude of man towards the being venerated. Contrary to w a x votive offerings, w h i c h enabled commu­ nication w i t h the „deity" w i t h the help of incantations, the silver votive offerings are articulated speech, a prayer. The field of art discussed did not have ativ connection w i t h the m a i n t r e n d i n the development of "culture, nor is i t possible to distinguish in Ihis f i e l d D f art itself anv development trends specific to a given community. The author raises the problem: is this field of a r t to be a subject of f o l k culture and can i t be regarded as material t o be used i n the study of its history? Z o f i a G r ó d e c k a discusses L A C I N G EMBROI­ DERY ON T U L L E FROM D Ą B R Ó W K A W I E L K O P O L ­ SKA A N D B A B I M O S T ( Z I E L O N A GÓRA V O I V O D SHIP). T u l l e bonnets, ruffs and kerchiefs ornamented w i t h lacing embroidery can be seen i n the collections of the Folk C u l t u r e and A r t Section of the National Museum in Poznan. The authoress analyses the t e c h n i ­ que, decorative motifs and application of embroidery on various parts of women's dress. The Babimost and Dąbrówka embroidery technique consists i n lacing the thread through the holes of the tulle. The weave of the t u l l e imposes the direction of lacing, so i n this embroidery geometrical motifs such as straight, broken and w a v y lines and also dots and stars predominate The v e r y 'few plant motives assume a geometrical f o r m . The dominating m o t i f is that of the star, and dots are used to f i l l in between the main motifs. The linear motifs l i m i t , divide and connect the elements of the composition and each of the motifs is embroidered i n several versions. The star m o t i f has the largest number of different versions, from the small starlet; k n o w n as "rosettes" (Dąbrówka W i e l k o ­ polska plate 1,14) to all kinds of " s n o w " stars folate I 16 17 19' 20 21) The star=; are comnosed of s i x r h o m b s ' w i t h the points t o w a r d s ' t h e centre ( o n r t i cularly i n the Babimost embroideries). Plant motifs are found" m a i n l y i n the Dąbrówka embroideries w h i l e the R a h i m o s r w o r k n n l v h a s v i n p a n d t w i n natterns f f i f 4'i a n d thp s o - n a l l e r l " l i ' t t l p t r p p s " (fie fil TwiVs with flowers and bunches o f f l o w e r - are only found as a motif i n the Dąbrówka embroideries; chronologically these are the latest motifs. - " " " " "' — — в — t J 1 , c i ± The selection of motifs and different composition distinguishes the Babimost embroideries f r o m those of Dąbrówka. The ones f r o m Babimost are more geome­ trical and the composition is clear, of the simplest elements. I t looks most effective i n the tulle bonnets 121 �(known as "czypki"). The composition of the embroidery on the crown is v e r t i c a l (fig. 8). The bonnet ties are also embroidered; the motifs from the crown of the bonnet are not strictly repeated on the ties. Rectangular tulle kerchiefs are embroidered i n two opposite corners and square kerchiefs only have one corner embroidered, (fig. 14, 15). The kerchiefs are finished w i t h tulle lace edging. The most w e l l k n o w n of the Babimost embroiderers were M a r i a n n a Rychła f r o m Babimost and Weronika Bursztyn f r o m Podmokle Male (Sulechów district). The Dąbrówka embroideries have very complex motifs. Particular attention is due to the p l a n t motifs, w h i c h are not treated n a t u r a l l y but stylized. Some of the Dąbrówka embroideries show the influence of the patterns of factory made lace. This lace was used to t r i m bonnets ( k n o w n as " K o p k i " ) , aprons and ruffs. The arrangement of the embroidery on the bonnets is i n stripes (fig. 19, 20, 21). T u l l e ruffs were made f r o m a strip of embroidered tulle t r i m m e d w i t h factory made lace. The most w e l l k n o w n embroiderers i n Dąbrówka Wielkopolska were f r o m the Jokiel and Kusior families, E w a S n i e z y ń s k a - S t o l o t writes about T H E "FOLK" C A R V I N G S OF A D A M SŁOWIŃSKI. The authoress analyses the w o r k of this amateur artist car­ v i n g according to f o l k conventions. Adam Słowiński was born i n Zakopane; he has the bachelor's degree i n Polish philology and graduated from the Higher Teachers College i n Cracow. Carving traditions were strong i n the highland f a m i l y of his mother, He began to carve two years ago and has produced 11 carvings. They are wood carvings treated f r o n t a l l y , made f r o m small polychromed blocks of up to 30 centimetres high. The authoress distinguishes two groups of carvings depicting the stages of development of Slowinski's creative w o r k . Three carvings f o r m the f i r s t group, namely Saint Kinga (fig. 2), Resurrected Christ, Pieta I (fig. 1). The carvings were inspired by originals seen in museums, i n period style, p a r t i c u l a r l y Gothic. I n this group dark polychrome varnish is used deliberately and rubbed off i n places to achieve a patinated effect. I n the second group, to w h i c h the authoress qualifies the rest of the carvings, the t r u e style of the carver is evident. He follows the f o l k art conventions here. The authoress regards the Pieta I I (fig. 10), w h i c h resem­ bles a f o l k scuplture i n stone, as the greatest achie­ vement i n this group. The second group is also different as regards colour — the carvings are b r i g h t and v i t a l l i k e f o l k paintings on glass. The authoress raises the problem of q u a l i f y i n g the w o r k of Słowiński. She says that there is no doubt that he is not a" p r i m i t i v e f o l k artist, but that his art shows strong links w i t h the f o l k a r t that inspired i t . I z a b e l l a G a l i c k a and H a n n a S y g i e t y ń s k a discuss the f i g u r e of the SAD CHRIST FROM A N I E L O W w h i c h was found when an inventory was being made of historical relics i n G a r w o l i n district. I t is a figure f r o m a wayside shrine and both the shrine and the figure are carved out of linden wood. On the f r o n t of the pole of the shrine there is a verse of a church h y m n and the date: " M a y 1st, 1650". The carving at Anielowo undoubtedly exhibits the features of f o l k art and is an interesting iconographic version of Christ the K i n g . I t is one of the earliest dated presentations rf the Sad Christ i n Poland. E w a S n i e z y n s k a - S t o l o t — THE DEVELOP­ M E N T OF CRACOW N T I V I T Y CRIBS AS J U D G E D FROM T H E L A S T T W O COMPETITIONS, T H E 13TH A N D 14H. The authoress emphasizes the changes i n type, f o r m and also i n the ideological character of the n a t i v i t y cribs. The crib w i t h a stage i n a recess is being replaced by cribs made up of architectural elements. A p a r t f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l fragments of Cracow a r c h i ­ tecture used so far, there are also various elements of late Gothic architecture. The cribs reflect current events by the addition D f dates, inscriptions to suit various occasions, banners, etc. The t r a d i t i o n a l puppets are being replaced by figures l i n k e d w i t h Cracow and its history. The Cracow n a t i v i t y cribs have ceased to be a puppet show, and are now a seasonal decoration. �ПОЛЬСКОЕ КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ № ЖУРНАЛ 2 НЛРОДНОЕ ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ГОД ИЗДАНИЯ X X I ИСКУССТВО ПОЛЬСКОЙ А К А Д Е М И И НАУК 1967 РЕЗЮМЕ Яцек Олендзки НИЯ (BOTA) — СЕРЕБРЯНЫЕ ПРИНОШЕ­ На осноае материала, собранного в местах палом­ ничества, автор обобщает результаты своих исследо­ ваний по художественной выделке серебряных при­ ношений. В начале статьи говорится о принятых обы­ чаях дарственных приношений на территории всей Европы и, в частности, Польши, анализируются окор­ мы этих приношений и приписываемые им функции. Вотивные приношения, которые мы будем называть „вота", принадлежат к тому виду творчества, о кото­ ром можно сказать, что народное мастерство граничит здесь с профессиональным; в Польше (не говоря о вотивной живописи) этот вид творчества до сих пор не был исследован. Автор рассматривает серебряные приношения, выполненные на металлических пластин­ ках, украшенных мелкой резьбой и гравировкой. В сельских местностях этот вид творчества, связан­ ный с цеховым ремеслом, встречается лишь в единич­ ных случаях. Автор выделяет следующие формы „вот": 1) изображение Бога и святых, являющихся пред­ метами местного культа (илл. 314), 2) выражение цели приношений под видони людей, животных, тех или других органов человеческого тела (илл. 5), 3) святые, олицетворяющие цель при­ ношения (илл. 12). Эта последняя форма „вот" принадлежит уже к более позднему периоду, а две первые являются, по мнению автора, основными образцами. Автор пытается установить происхождение и со­ циальное положение жертвователей „вот". Серебряпью приношения жертвовала не только зажиточная часть населения. Многие дорогие „вота"' приносились коллективно, например, участниками паломничества в Ченстохов (илл. 32). На многих „вотах" имеются изображения представителей шляхты (не исключено, что мелкопоместной). Приношения с хозяйственной тематикой свидетельствуют, как надо полагать, о жер­ твователях из крестьянского сословия. Много коллек­ тивных „вот" дарили жители городов и местечек, а среди них представители городского плебса. Рассматривая тематику ..вот", автор утверждает, что хозяйственная тематика встречается очень редко. В Польше нет таких мест культа, где можно встре­ тить большое нагромождение „вот" с крестьянской тематикой. Кроме незначительного количества „вот" с изображением домашних животных (илл. 21 и 22). встречаются „нота" с изображением лодок и судов в коллекциях Хелмна и Червиньска (илл. 26). Основ­ ная тематика „вот" — это личные дела и здоровье человека, Эта группа включает, в частности, „вота", отображающие младенцев в пеленках и гробиках, ла­ дони, руки, ноги, сердца. „Вота" с изображением ла­ доней и рук имеют особое символическое значение, Вначале они были связаны с чудесньгми исцеления­ ми. Особую популярность приобрели они в X I X в. и стали встречаться наравне с изображением сердец. Автор статьи полагает, что цель приношений шла дальше заботы о здоровье и считает, что ладонь, ру­ ка — это символы связи между жертвователем и чти­ мым лицом. В конце X I X века, когда стало налаживаться фа­ бричное производство „вот", формы их обеднели. В на­ стоящее время выпускается только один вид „вот": пылающие сердца различной величины. Во многих европейских странах (в частности в Италии и в Гре­ ции) замечается обогащение традиционных форм но­ выми (изображение автомашин, мотоциклетов). Фа­ бричное производство снизило также художествен­ ный^ уровень „вот". До середины X I X в. творчество >»вот отличалось разнообразием форм и рознилось художественным уровнем. Это можно заметить при изучении собраний отдельных паломнических мест­ ностей. Наряду с высоко художественными „вотами" встречаются „вота", выполненные в мастерских, рас­ полагающих скромной техникой; их изделия прими­ тивны по форме и содержанию. Касаясь художествещнюй ценности „вот", автор говорит о их декоратив­ ности, Почти все прямоугольные пластинки украше­ ны обрамлениями. Во многих „нотах" использованы иконописные образцы и орнамент ювелирных изделий в духе барокко и 'ренессанса. Имена и происхождение творцов „вот" трудно уста­ новить, В общем — это аномимное творчество. Лишь изредка в более крупных паломнических центрах имеются на „вотах" отличительные знаки и пробы. Отсутствуют также сведения о творцах „вот" в архив­ ных материалах, Выпуск серебряных „вот" был лишь побочным видом творчества золотильных мастерских. Значительная часть исполнителей принадлежала к числу провинциальных ремесленников, притом так наз. „халтурщиков". В заключение автор отмечает, что даже „вота", выполняемые по заказу состоятельных людей, были по своему характеру более сродни народному твор­ честву, чем определенному направлению профессио­ нального искусства. Творчество серебряных вот отличается большой условностью пластических решений. Автор выдвигает тезис, что эта условность обусловлена такими внематериальными факторами, как: верования, отношение к чтимому существу. В противоположность восковым „вотам", которые предоставляют возможность сооб­ щаться с „божеством" при помощи заклинаний, се­ ребряные „вота" являются определенной речью — молитвой. Рассматриваемый в статье Е И Д искусства не был связан с основным ходом развития культуры. В нем самом нельзя также выделить путей развития, харак­ терных для определенных обществ. Автор статьи ставит вопрос можно ли назвать этот вид творчества предметом народной культуры или же он является материалом для изучения ее истории. С о ф и я Г р о д е ц к а пишет о ВЫШИВКЕ ПО ТЮЛЮ, Х А Р А К Т Е Р Н О Й ДЛЯ МЕСТНОСТЕЙ ДОМБ Р У В К А В Е Л Ь К О П О Л Ь С К А И БАБИМОСТ (Зеленогорское воеводство). Тюлевые чепцы, жабо и платки, украшенные вышивкой, находятся в собраниях Отдела культуры и народного творчества познаньского На­ ционального музея. Автор анализирует технику, узоры и вышивку в различных частях женского наряда. Техника вышивок, выполняемых в Бабимосте и Домбрувке, заключается в протягивании ниток через тюль. Плетение тюля указывает направление вышив­ ки. Преобладают в ней гоометризованные мотивы, как: простые, извилистые и волнистые линии, точки и звез­ дочки. Немногочисленные растительные мотивы также отличаются геометризованной формой. Доминирующую роль играет мотив звезды, точки дополняют основные мотивы. Линейный орнамент ограничивают, разделяют и соединяют композиционные элементы. Каждый мо­ тив имеет несколько разновидностей. Наиболее разно­ образен звездчатый узор: начиная с маленькой звез­ дочки, называемой „розеткой" (Домбрувка Велькопольска, табл. I , 14) вплоть до различных видов „сне­ жинок", (табл. I , 16, 17, 19, 20, 21). Очень распростра­ нены звезды из шести ромбов, обращенных вершина­ ми внутрь (особенно часто встречаемые в бабимойской выпгивке). Растительные мотивы характерны главным образом для домбровецких вышивок; в бабимойских вышивках встречается только мотив с виноградной лозой, веточками (илл. 4) и так наз. „деревцами" (илл. 6). Мотивы из веточек с цветочками и из цве­ точных букетиков известны только в Домбрувке Вель123 �копольской. Хронологически они с 'ьге поздние. Бабимойеюие и домбравецкие вышивки рознятся моти­ вами и композицией. Бабимойские вышивки имеют более геометризованную форму, отчетливую компо­ зицию из простейших элементов. Наиболее эффектно выглядят они на тюлевых чепцах („чинки"). Компо­ зиция вышивки на донышке вертикальная (илл. 8). Украшались также вышивкой завязки чепцов, причем их узор несколько рознился от узора вышивки на донышке чепца. В прямоугольных тюлевых платках украшались вышивкой два противополопепых конца, в квадрат­ ных — только один (илл. 14, 15). Края платка от­ делывались тюлевыми кружевами. Среди бабимойских вышивальщиц самой большой известностью пользовались Марианна Рыхла из Бабимоста и Вероника Бурштын родом из местности Подмокле Мале (Сулеховскмй район). Домбровецкие вышивки отличаются сложными узо­ рами. Оособенно выделяются растительные мотивы, причем не натуралистические, а стилизованные. Не­ которых из них переняли узоры фабричных кружев. Машинными кружевами украшали чепцы ((.копки"), передники, жабо. Узор вышивки на чепцах располо­ жен в полоску {илл. 19, 20, 21). Тюлевые жабо состав­ ляли из полос вышитого тюля и обрамляли машинным кружевом. Лучшими мастерицами в Домбрувке Велькопольской считались вышивальщицы из рода Иокелей и Кусиоров. Э в а С н е ж и н ь с к а - С т о л о т пишет о „НАРОД­ НЫХ" СКУЛЬПТУРАХ АДАМА СЛОВИНЬСКОГО. Автор анализирует творчество этого ваятеля-люби­ теля, придерживающегося манеры народного мастер­ ства. Адам Словиньски, уроженец местности Закоггане, окончил факультет польской филологии и Выс­ шую педагогическую школу в Кракове. Традиции скульптурного искусства он унаследовал от семьи его матери-горянки, Сам Словиньски стал заниматься ваянием два года тому назад и в течение года создал 11 скульптур. Это произведения из дерева, обработан­ ные фронтально из небольших деревянных кубиков размером до 30 см., покрытых полихромией. Автор статьи выделяет несколько групп, отображающих эта­ пы творчества Словиньского. К первой группе от­ носятся три скульптуры: ,^св. Кинга" (илл. 2), Вос­ кресение Христово (Пиета I , илл. 1). Скульптуры вы­ полнены по музейным образцам; художник следует традициям стильных скульптур, особенно готических. Он совершенно сознательно пользуется темной поли­ хромией и старается патинировать свои скульптуры. Ко второй группе автор относит остальные работы Словиньского, в которых можно отметить индивидуаль­ ный почорк художника, обращающегося к народному творчеству. Лучшим произведением в этой группе считает автор статьи „Пиету I I (илл. 10), которая на­ поминает народные каменные фигуры. Вторая группа отличается также своеобразным колоритом — живым и сочным как на народных картинах, написанных на стекле. Пытаясь определить род творчества Словиньского, автор приходит к убеждению, что его не следует при­ числять к примитивным народным художникам, но все же его творчество указывает на связь с народным искусством, которое является его вдохновителем. Эва С н е ж и п ь с к а - С т о л о т — ПУТИ РАЗ­ ВИТИЯ К Р А К О В С К И Х ВЕРТЕПОВ НА ОСНОВАНИИ ДВУХ ПОСЛЕДНИХ КОНКУРСОВ ( X X I I I И X X I V ) . Автор статьи обращает внимание на то, как изме­ нились тип, формы и идейное содержание вертепов. Вместо вертепов со сценой внутри появляются -вер­ тепы с архитектоническими элементами. Кроме тра­ диционных до сих пор фрагментов краковского зод­ чества встречаются также различные элементы позднегогичеекой архитектуры. Вертепы используют актуальные события, знаменательные даты, транс­ паранты, надписи и т.п. Вместо традиционных кукол выступают лица, связанные с Краковом, с его историей. Краковский вертеп потерял характер театра и являет­ ся скорей декорацией на определенные случаи. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawano prze:z: P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A A R T Y S T Y C Z N E I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. dużego f o r m a t u , około 100 i l u s t r a c j i . Cena 24 zł, prenumerata półroczna 48 zł, roczna — 9 fi zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k . «4 str. dużego formatu, bogaty materiał ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p o l : oczna 36 zł, 72 zł. roczn; P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 170 str. d r u k u , około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata półroczna 3G zł, roczna — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , około 130 str. d r u k u , liczne przekłady nutowe. Cena 13 zł, prenumerata półroczna 36 z!, roczna — 7 2 zł. Wszystkie meracie. czasopisma nabywać można regularnie jodynie w prenu- WARUNKI PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ S Z T U K I L U D O W E J " Cena prenumeraty: półrocznie zł 36, rocznie zł 72. Prenumeraty przyjmowane su do 10 dnia miesiąca okres prenumeraty. poprzedzanego Prenumeratę na k r a j dia czytelników i n d y w i d u a l n y c h przyjmują urzędy pocztowe ora/ listonosze. Czytelnicy i n d y w i d u a l n i mogą również dokonywać wpłat na konto P K O N r 1-6-100020 — Centrala Kolportażu Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w ..Kuch" Warszawa, u l . Wronia 23. Wszystkie instytucje państwowe i społeczne m o g a zamawiać prenume­ ratę wyłącznie za pośrednictwem Odziałów i Delegatur „Ruch". Prenumeratę na zagranicę, która jest o 40»/. droższa — przyjmuje Biuro Kolportażu W y d a w n i c t w Zagranicznych „Kuch" Warszawa, u l . Wronia 23, t e l . 20-46-33, konin PKO NV 1-6-100024. SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze numerów zdcaktualizcwanych można nabywać w P u n k ­ cie Wysyłkowym Prasv A r c h i w a l n e j „Ruch", Warszawa, u i . Nowomiejska n r 15.17, konto P K O N r П4-6-700041 V I I Oddział M i e j s k i Warszawa. A k t u a l n e n u m e r , c / a . - . o m I n s t v i u t u S/.tuki P A N posiada Ośrodek Rozpowszechniania W v ; i a w n c t w N a u k o w y c h P A N w Pałacu K u l t u r y i N a u k i w Warszawie. ! / . a k ł . w l y G r i i l u - У Н ' . Л > : п к а " . ? . u f c i , i . N i 2. W - w . s -•.•..-.•hi.r.iżych 39. У.(м'.\. i:f. t'ar» i l u s t r . ' k l . I l l , 1 2 0 g. B I k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I l l , 22i! B I . N a k ł a d 1 SC* cs-<. T - 3 7 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/bcc1225769f8d4f1e50c4385a7cfb7dd.pdf 3a52386d9ade040d3d51dd1a393a31f7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4967 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4606 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.3; s.187-188 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F O L K QUARTERLY P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E A R T I N S T I T U T E OF T H E P O L I S H A C A D E M Y No 3 YEAR BOOK X X I A OE R T SCIENCES 1967 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES Olga M u l k i e w i c z - G o l d b e r g — C H A N G E S I N THE INTERIORS OF C O N T E M P O R A R Y R U R A L C O T ­ TAGES The authoress discusses the differences between the interiors of cottages i n the district of B e ł c h a t ó w (Łódz voivodship). Analysis of the history of settlement arid the results of ethnographic studies led to the division of the villages into two categories: 1. the t r a d i t i o n a l l y agricultural villages and 2. the „ p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d " ones. The authoress uses the t e r m „ p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d " to describe the villages which came into being i n the 19th century, where the essential factor was the problem of mass emigrations in search of w o r k . Despite the fact that handicraft and trade centres are situated i n the same zone, the development of both categories of villages has been different. The interiors of the cottages i n the agricultural villages went through an evolutional process, all the stages of development coming i n a certain succession as new furnishings, etc. appeared on the market. In the „ p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d " villages there was no transition from one type of i n t e r i o r to another, there was no definite type of i n t e r i o r of a u n i f o r m character. This was the result of many factors. The authoress tries to establish w h a t factors had an influence on the development of interiors i n both categories of villages. She takes the modern i n t e r i o r as a basis for her com­ parisons. The differences are evident i n the ornamen­ tation of interiors, but they are not visible i n the field of the living and recreational 'functions of the home. The starting point i n the deliberations on the interiors of cottages i n a g r i c u l t u r a l villages is a descrip­ tion of the t r a d i t i o n a l cottage room (fig. 1), account being taken of the arrangement of the f u r n i t u r e and utensils. Changes i n the equipment of the home are accompanied by changes i n the arrangement of the furniture. The authoress discusses the ornamentation of interiors, both t r a d i t i o n a l and contemporary. The changes in this domain consist i n the appearance of completely new elements (tapestries, potted plants on stands, crocheted doilies) and i n the changing over from traditional to more modern decorations of certain types. Next to holy pictures, as a t r a n s i t o r y f o r m , w e find family photographs, views and landscapes from i l l u ­ strated magazines. The appearance of the k i t c h e n has undergone radical changes. Kitchens are now furnished in the urban style. The first piece of f u r n i t u r e to be purchased is a w h i t e dresser. The interiors i n the „ p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d " villages have changed more slowly than those i n the agricultural villages. The appearance of new elements has been dependent on the waves of emigration i n search of work. The different character of the development of interiors is more evident i n the ornamental elements than in the agricultural villages. I t is auite usual to f i n d factory made objects and a large number of pieces of f u r n i t u r e and equipment brought from small towns. The changes taking place i n the i n t e r i o r furnishings of the cottages in traditionally a g r i c u l t u r a l villages are much more violent, but i n both categories of village one sees s t r i ­ vings towards the same pattern — the s m a l l - t o w n interior. B a r b a r a P o l o c z k o w a — T E X T I L E S A N D COSTU­ MES I N Ś L Ą S K C I E S Z Y Ń S K I I N T H E 16TH — 18TH CENTURIES Taking as a basis testamentary inventories i n the years 1556—1629 and 1640—1778, the authoress discusses the costumes w o r n i n the Cieszyn region i n that period. The most information is available on women's costumes, those of men being mentioned i n a m a r g i n a l way. Apart from the town-dwellers'costumes from w h i c h the Cieszyn regional dress originates, the authoress also deals w i t h the question of the-costumes w o r n i n the surrounding villages. The basic m a t e r i a l used for m a k i n g bed-linen, table-linen and also some parts of the women's costumes, was linen. The inventories enumerate i n detail the amount of table-linen and bed-linen and the q u a l i t y of the linen they were made of. For dresses and coats, expensive materials f r o m abroad were used, such as silks from China, English cloth and also cloth from Flanders, D u t c h velvets and woollen materials from T u r k e y . They were of v i v i d , intense colours (red, green, sapphire blue and b r i c k - r e d ) . Dresses were also made of woollen materials or homespun fabrics made of a w o o l and l i n e n m i x t u r e woven on looms at home. This k i n d of fabric was the basic m a t e r i a l used for m a k i n g skirts that were part of the Cieszyn regional costumes. The testamentary inventories also refer to the use of expensive materials for bodices called „ ż y w o t k i " (fig. 11). They were made of velvet, damask, various kinds of silk and were ornamented w i t h galloon and embroidery. They were fastened w i t h silver buttons (fig. 1) or laced on silver hooks (fig. 2). A m o n g the other ornaments w o r n were w r o u g h t silver belts. As regards the w h i t e elements of the women's costumes, mention is made of w h a t are called i n Polish „ k a b o t k i " . These were a k i n d of blouse w i t h puffed sleeves w o r n under a bodice. The cut of the „ k a b o t k i " has not changed at a l l up to the present day. As from the middle of the 17th centuries w e find mention of ..Brabant" laces. They were used to t r i m bonnets. Bonnets w i t h lace fronts („naczołki") were w o r n in Ś l ą s k C i e s z y ń s k i up to the outbreak of the Second W o r l d War. They were a direct continuation of the baroque bonnets of the town-dwellers. F r o m the middle of the 18th century, the dress of the town-dwellers of the Cie­ szyn region began to penetrate to the villages, first of all being w o r n by the r i c h peasants and later becoming part of the regional costume. The most direct conti­ nuation of this style is to be found i n the v i c i n i t y of Jabłonków. J a n i n a P e t e r a — ORNAMENTED DISTAFFS I N THE L U B L I N REGION Distaffs ornamented ( w i t h carving) are one of the not v e r y numerous signs of interest i n this field of folk art i n the L u b l i n region. They are mostly found i n the southern p a r t of the voivodship. The authoress deals w i t h the carving technique, the use and common character of distaffs i n the L u b l i n region and their artistic values. The article is based on two years'study i n various parts of the region and analysis of the collec­ t i o n of 70 distaffs from the years 1900—1963. I n the first part of the article the various types of distaffs are discussed and the scope of their occurence, account being taken of t h e i r occurrence i n Europe. For m a k i n g distaffs, the favourite kinds of wood are maple and beech, owing to the fact that they are hard woods and easy to carve and w h i t t l e , and maple wood of one k i n d because of its colour. L i n d e n and peartree wood are used more rarely. The two types of distaff are made by different techniques and each k i n d of ornamentation is made by a different carving tech­ nique. I n addition to carvings, the distaffs are also decorated w i t h inlaid w o r k and painted ornamentation. The ornamentation includes plant motifs, geometrical patterns and, zoomornhic elements and, v e r y rarely, anthropomorphic motifs. The most commonly applied plant motifs are: twigs w i t h leaves (plate I I I / l ) , flowers (plate V/3), trees (plate Ш / 6 ) . As regards geometrical patterns, the most numerous are rhombs, squares, t r i a n ­ gles and various kinds of stars. The zoomorphic motifs include birds and household animals (dogs, cats), some of them take the form of a carving at the end of the distaff, (fig. 11). The most rare are anthropomorphic motifs (fig. 13). The most r i c h l y ornamented part of the distaffs is the base, the arrangement of the ornamenta­ tion being i n stripes. The upper part of the distaff is verv rarely ornamented. The authoress discusses the carving workmanship, describing the w o r k of the various carvers, and stressing the differences between them, beginning from the choice of subject and ending w i t h the w a y of treating the ornamentation. On the basis of her analysis of the ornamentation, the authoress tries to establish the chronoloRv of the various types of distaffs. She also compares them w i t h distaffs from neighbouring voivodships (Rzeszów, B i a ł y ­ stok, Kielce). �П О Л Ь С К О Е КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ № 3 Н Я Р О Д Н О Е ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ГОД И З Д А Н И Я X X I И С К У С С Т В О П О Л Ь С К О Й А К А Д Е М И И НАУК 1967 РЕЗЮМЕ Ольга Мулькевич-Гольдберг — ПЕРЕМЕ­ НЫ В СОВРЕМЕННОМ ДЕРЕВЕНСКОМ Ж И Л И Щ Е Автор пишет о внутреннем убранстве деревенских ж и л и щ на т е р р и т о р и и и з у ч а е м о г о им Б е л х а т о в с к о г о р а й о н а ( Л о д з и н с к о е воеводство), о т м е ч а я п р и этом существующие различия На основании анализа истории з а с е л е н и я этого р а й о н а и р е з у л ь т а т о в э т н о ­ графических исследований были выделены две к а ­ тегории д е р е в е н ь : 1) т р а д и ц и о н н ы е з е м л е д е л ь ч е с к и е деревни, 2) „ п р о л е т а р и з о в а н н ы е " д е р е в н и . О п р е д е л е ­ н и е „ п р о л е т а р и з о в а н н ы е " относится к д е р е в н я м X I X в е к а , где с у щ е с т в е н н о е з н а ч е н и е и м е л а п р о б л е м а м а с ­ совой э к о н о м и ч е с к о й э м и г р а ц и и . Н е с м о т р я на н а л и ч и е одних и т е х ж е р е м е с л е н н ы х и т о р г о в ы х центров, п у т и развития в области устройства и убранства ж и л и щ в д е р е в н я х обеих к а т е г о р и й п р о х о д и л и по р а з н о м у . В д е р е в н я х строго з е м л е д е л ь ч е с к о г о типа п е р е м е н ы п р о и с х о д и л и путем э в о л ю ц и и ч е р е з все э т а п ы раз­ в и т и я с соблюдением о п р е д е л е н н о й о ч е р е д н о с т и в п р и ­ обретении н о в ы х п р е д м е т о в . В д е р е в н я х в т о р о й к а ­ тегории, т.е. т а к н а з . „ п р о л е т а р и з о в а н н ы х " н е з а м е ­ ч а л о с ь п е р е х о д а от одного р о д а и н т е р ь е р а к другому, н е б ы л о определенного т и п а и з б ы однородного х а р а к ­ тера. Это обусловлено ц е л ы м р я д о м о б с т о я т е л ь с т в . А в т о р п ы т а е т с я у с т а н о в и т ь ф а к т о р ы , в л и я ю щ и е на р а з в и т и е в н у т р е н н е г о устройства ж и л и щ в д е р е в н я х обеих к а т е г о р и й , п р и н и м а я за основу современное убранство. Р а з н и ц а з а м е ч а е т с я т о л ь к о в п р е д м е т а х у к р а ш е н и я и з б ы , но н е в ее ф у н к ц и о н а л ь н о м бытовом значении. Исходной точкой при исследовании ж и л и щ в зем­ ледельческой деревне является описание традицион­ ной д е р е в н и (илл. 1), с у ч е т о м способа р а з м е щ е н и я мебели. По м е р е того к а к м е н я е т с я о б с т а н о в к а , м е н я ­ ется т а к ж е способ ее р а з м е щ е н и я . А в т о р п и ш е т о д е ­ к о р а т и в н о й стороне т р а д и ц и о н н о г о и современного убранства. П е р е м е н ы в этом о т н о ш е н и и з а к л ю ч а ю т с я в появлении совершенно новых элементов (коврики, цветочные горшки в жардиньерках, вязаные салфет­ ки, а т а к ж е в з а м е н е н е к о т о р ы х т р а д и ц и о н н ы х д е ­ к о р а т и в н ы х э л е м е н т о в более с о в р е м е н н ы м и . Р я д о м со святыми образами появляются, к а к переходная форма, семейные фотографии, вырезанные из иллюстриро­ ванных ж у р н а л о в л а н д ш а ф т ы . Основным образом и з м е н и л с я в и д к у х н и . Е е у с т р а и в а ю т по о б р а з ц у г о ­ родской. В п е р в у ю о ч е р е д ь п р и о б р е т а е т с я б е л ы й буфет. В н у т р е н н е е устройство ж и л и щ в „ п р о л е т а р и з о в а н ­ н ы х " деревных менялось медленнее, чем в земледель­ ч е с к и х . П о я в л е н и е н о в ы х э л е м е н т о в з а в и с е л о от н а ­ плыва экономической эмиграции. Своеобразный х а ­ р а к т е р р а з в и т и я в н у т р е н н е г о устройства ж и л и щ осо­ бенно з а м е ч а е т с я É м а н е р е у к р а ш а т ь их. З д е с ь г о ­ раздо меньше традиционных элементов прикладаного искусства чем в земледельческих деревнях. Довольно часто в с т р е ч а ю т с я ф а б р и ч н ы е и з д е л и я и п р о в и н ц и а л ь ­ ная мебель. В традиционных земледельческих д е ­ р е в н я х у б р а н с т в о ж и л и щ более р е з к о м е н я е т с я , но все ж е в д е р е в н я х обеих к а т е г о р и й з а м е ч а е т с я с т р е м ­ л е н и е у с т р а и в а т ь ж и л и щ а по о б р а з ц у п р о в и н ц и а л ь ­ ных квартир. Б а р б а р а П о л ё ч к о в а — ТЕКСТИЛЬНЫЕ ИЗ­ ДЕЛИЯ И ОДЕЖДА В ЦЕШИНСКОЙ СИЛЕЗИИ В X V I — X V I I I ВВ Автор, н а основе з а в е щ а н и й и и н в е н т а р е й с 1556— 1629 гг. и 1640—1778 гг., о п и с ы в а е т ц е ш и н с к у ю о д е ж ­ ду того п е р и о д а . Б о л ь ш е всего д а н н ы х и м е е т с я к а с а ­ тельно женской одежды, о м у ж с к о й говорится л и ш ь мимоходом. К р о м е м е щ а н с к о г о н а р я д а , к о т о р ы й с л у ­ ж и л образцом д л я ц е ш и н с к о г о н а р я д а , а в т о р з а т р а г и ­ в а е т т а к ж е вопрос о д е ж д ы в ц е ш и н с к о й д е р е в н е . Основным материалом, который употреблялся для ш и т ь я постельного и столового б е л ь я , а т а к ж е н е к о ­ т о р ы х ч а с т е й ж е н с к о г о н а р я д а б ы л о л ь н я н о е полотно. В и н в е н т а р я х ч а с т о подробно п е р е ч и с л я е т с я к о л и ­ ч е с т в о столового и п о с т е л ь н о г о о е л ь я , п р и ч е м говорит­ ся о к а ч е с т в е п о л о т н а . П л а т ь я и п а л ь т о ш и л и и з д о р о г и х заграничных м а т е р и й : и з к и т а й с к о г о ш е л к а , а н г л и й с к о г о и флан­ д р и й с к о г о с у к н а , и з г о л л а н д с к о г о б а р х а т а и л и турец­ к о й ш е р с т и ж и в ы х , я р к и х ц в е т о в ( к р а с н ы й , зеленый, в а с и л ь к о в ы й , о р а н ж е в ы й ) . Б ы л и т а к ж е платья из д о м о т к а н н о й ш е р с т и и л и и з ш е р с т и со льном. Из та­ кого м а т е р и а л а ш и л и г л а в н ы м образом юбки для цешинских н а р о д н ы х костюмов. В з а в е щ а н и я х у п о м и н а е т с я т а к ж е о дорогих ма­ т е р и а л а х н а к о р с а ж и ( „ ж и в о т к и " ) (илл. 11), котарые ш и л и из б а р х а т а , атласа, р а з л и ч н о г о рода ШРЛИ, К о р с а ж и у к р а ш а л и с ь г а л у н а м и и в ы ш и в к о й , серебря­ н ы м и п у г о в и ц а м и (илл. 1) л и б о с е р е б р я н ы м и застеж­ к а м и со ш н у р о в к о й (илл. 2). К р о м е того б ы л и в упо­ т р е б л е н и и п о я с а и з литого с е р е б р а . С р е д и б е л ы х ч а с т е й ж е н с к о г о н а р я д а упоминаются т а к н а з . „ к а б о т к и " . Это б ы л и своего рода кофты с с о б р а н н ы м и р у к а в а м и , к о т о р ы е н о с и л и к корсажам. К р о й этих к о ф т до сих пор не переменился. С с е р е д и н ы X V I I в. п о я в л я ю т с я з а м е т к и о „браб а н т с к и х " к р у ж е в а х . И м и у к р а ш а л и ж е н с к и е чепцы. Ч е п ц ы , у к р а ш е н н ы е с п е р е д и к р у ж е в о м , носили в Це­ ш и н с к о й С и л е з и и до в т о р о й м и р о в о й в о й н ы . Они были н е п о с р е д с т в е н н ы м п р о д о л ж е н и е м м е щ а н с к и х чепцов в с т и л е б а р о к к о . В с е р е д и н е X V I I I в. м е щ а н с к и й наряд и з Ц е ш и н а п р о н и к а е т в д е р е в н ю . С н а ч а л а его носит богатое к р е с т ь я н с т в о , а з а т е м он с т а н о в и т с я народным костюмом. Н а и б о л е е б л и з о к ему, п о ж а л у й , наряд окрестностей Яблонкова. Я н и н а П е т е р а — Р Е З Н Ы Е П Р Я С Л И Ц Ы В ЛЮБЛИНЩИНЕ У к р а ш е н н ы е т о н к о й р е з ь б о й п р я с л и ц ы принадле­ ж а т к немногим и з д е л и я м этой о т р а с л и народного т в о р ч е с т в а , к о т о р о й з а н и м а л и с ь н а территории Люб л и н щ и н ы . О н и в с т р е ч а ю т с я г л а в н ы м образом в юж­ ной ч а с т и Л ю б л и н с к о г о в о е в о д с т в а . В статье рассма­ т р и в а е т с я т е х н и к а р е з ь б ы , п р и м е н е н и е и распростра­ н е н и е п р я с л и ц в этом р а й о н е и и х художественная ц е н н о с т ь . А в т о р в т е ч е н и е д в у х л е т в е л исследования и с о б р а л к о л л е к ц и ю и з 70 п р я с л и ц с 1900—1963 гг., на о с н о в а н и и к о т о р ы х н а п и с а н а н а с т о я щ а я статья. В п е р в о й ч а с т и г о в о р и т с я о т и п а х п р я с л и ц и их рас­ п р о с т р а н е н и и на т е р р и т о р и и в с е й Е в р о п ы . П р я с л и ц ы в ы д е л ы в а л и п р е и м у щ е с т в е н н о из явора и б у к а , п о с к о л ь к у и х д р е в е с и н а отличается твер­ д о с т ь ю и л е г к о о б р а б а т ы в а е т с я , и з к л е н а ввиду цвета его д р е в е с и н ы , р е ж е — и з л и п ы и груши. Два типа п р я с л и ц в ы п о л н я л и р а з л и ч н о й т е х н и к о й , каждый род резного о р н а м е н т а в ы п о л н я л с я и н о й техникой. Кроме р е з ь б ы п р я с л и ц ы о т д е л ы в а л и и н к р у с т а ц и е й или рас­ к р а ш е н н ы м и у з о р а м и . О р н а м е н т и к а п р я с л и ц слагалась из р а с т и т е л ь н ы х , г е о м е т р и ч е с к и х , зооморфических и и з р е д к а а н т р о п о м о р ф и ч е с к и х мотивов. Среди расти­ т е л ь н ы х м о т и в о в ч а щ е всего в с т р е ч а л и с ь ветки с лис­ т о ч к а м и (табл. Ш / 1 ) , ц в е т ы (табл. V/3), деревца (табл. III/6). Среди г е о м е т р и ч е с к и х м о т и в о в преобладали ром­ бы, к в а д р а т ы , т р е у г о л ь н и к и и р а з л и ч н о г о рода звез­ д о ч к и . З о о м о р ф и ч е с к и е м о т и в ы и з о б р а ж а ю т птиц и д о м а ш н и х ж и в о т н ы х (собака, к о ш к а ) . Некоторые из н и х в в и д е з а к о н ч е н н о й с к у л ь п т у р ы являются за­ в е р ш е н и е м п р я с л и ц ы (илл. 11). Р е ж е всего встпечакгся а н т р о п о м о р ф и ч е с к и е м о т и в ы (илл. 13). Наиболее р а з у к р а ш е н н о й ч а с т ь ю п р я с л и ц я в л я е т с я их основа­ ние, п р и ч е м д е к о р а т и в н ы е м о т и в ы расположены в ряд. В е р х н я я часть обычно лишена украшений. А в т о р с т а т ь и о п и с ы в а е т м а с т е р с к и е разчиков. ха­ р а к т е р и з у е т о т д е л ь н ы х м а с т е р о в , отмечает своеобраз­ н ы е ч е р т ы и х т в о р ч е с т в а , р о з н я щ и е и х произведения, ч т о н а х о д и т свое в ы р а ж е н и е в п о д б о р к е и трактовке о р н а м е н т а . Н а основе а н а л и з а орнамента автор пы­ т а е т с я у с т а н о в и т ь х р о н о л о г и ю п о я в л е н и я отдельных в и д о в п р я с л и ц , с о п о с т а в л я е т с п р я с л и ц а м и соседн.я в о е в о д с т в Ж е ш о в с к о г о , Б е л о с т о к с к о г о , Келецкого. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI PAN wydawane przez: P.P. W Y D A W N I C T W A A R T Y S T Y C Z N E I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. dużego formaitu, o k o ł o 100 i l u s t r a c j i . Cena 24 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 48 zł, roczna — 96 zł. P O L S K A S Z T U K A L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k , 64 str. dużego formatu, bogaty m a t e r i a ł ilustracyjny. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 170 str. d r u k u , około 100 ilustracji. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , o k o ł o 130 str. d r u k u , liczne p r z e k ł a d y nutowe. Cena 18 zł, prenumerata p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, roczna — 72 zł. Wszystkie czasopisma n a b y w a ć m o ż n a meracie. regularnie jedynie w prenu­ W A R U N K I PRENUMERATY „POLSKIEJ SZTUKI LUDOWEJ" Cena prenumeraty: p ó ł r o c z n i e zł 36, rocznie zł 72. Prenumeraty przyjmowane są do 10 dnia m i e s i ą c a okres prenumeraty. poprzedzającego P r e n u m e r a t ę na k r a j dla c z y t e l n i k ó w i n d y w i d u a l n y c h p r z y j m u j ą u r z ę d y pocztowe oraz listonosze. Czytelnicy i n d y w i d u a l n i m o g ą r ó w n i e ż d o k o n y w a ć w p ł a t na konto P K O N r 1-6-100020 — C e n t r a l a K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch" Warszawa, u l . W r o n i a 23. Wszystkie instytucje p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne m o g ą z a m a w i a ć prenume­ r a t ę w y ł ą c z n i e za p o ś r e d n i c t w e m O d z i a ł ó w i Delegatur „ R u c h " . P r e n u m e r a t ę na z a g r a n i c ę , k t ó r a jest o 40 /o droższa — przyjmuje Biuro K o l p o r t a ż u W y d a w n i c t w Zagranicznych „ R u c h " Warszawa, u l . Wronia 23, tel. 20-46-88, konto P K O N r 1-6-100024. ,0 SPRZEDAŻ Egzemplarze n u m e r ó w zdeaktualizowanych m o ż n a n a b y w a ć , w P u n k ­ cie W y s y ł k o w y m Prasy A r c h i w a l n e j „ R u c h " , Warszawa, u l . N o w o m i e j ska nr 15/17, na miejscu, lub za zaliczeniem pocztowym. A k t u a l n e numery czasopism I n s t y t u t u Sztuki P A N posiada Hozpowszechniania W y d a w n i c t w N a u k o w y c h P A N w P a ł a c u i N a u k i w Warszawie. Ośrodek Kultury Z a k ł a d y G r a f i c z n e „ T a m k a " . Z a k ł a d N r 2. Z a m . 438. P a p . i l u s t r . k l . I I I , 120 g. B I + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1475 egz. T-72 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/10d0df95707ada18ed0f935a4a75838f.pdf 9f6df0b168cdef20cecad2733e5f7f56 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4984 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4623 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1967 t.21 z.4; s.245-247 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Type The nature or genre of the resource czas. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P No. 4 O L I S H F O L K A R Q U A R T E R L Y P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E A R T I N S T I T U T E OF T H E P O L I S H A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES YEAR BOOK X X I T 1967 SUMMARY O F ARTICLES I n the first part of this issue we b r i n g the steno­ graphic record of T H E D I S C U S S I O N O N SUBJECTS CONNECTED W I T H T H E GENESIS A N D SCOPE OF T H E N O T I O N OF F O L K C U L T U R E , F O L K A R T I N PARTICULAR. The discussion was organized by the Laboratory for research on non-professional art of the A r t I n s t i t u t e of the Polish Academy of Sciences w i t h the cooperation of our editorial staff. Those t a k i n g p a r t i n the discussion included art historians, ethnographers, musicologists specializing i n folklore, l i t e r a r y historians and art sociologists. To centre attention on problems of particular i m p o r ­ tance, we suggested the adoption of the f o l l o w i n g order to the participants: 1) The scope of the notion of folk culture and proposals concerning its definition, and 2) an attempt to define folk art and the character of this phenomenon. The discussion was intended to give answers to a number of problems preoccupying those doing research on folk art. The theoretical assumptions that were once accepted no longer apply i n research on modern folk art. A p p l y i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n of folk culture may lead to a l i m i t a t i o n of the field of research, and i n consequence certain i m p o r t a n t problems going beyond this t r a d i t i o n a l notion could be overlooked. The new theoretical assumptions should be based on generaliza­ tions elaborated from the material collected by resear­ chers i n different disciplines. The author appeals to researchers to make compa­ risons of agrarian cultures i n various geographical re­ gions, as the polarization of cultures i n these com­ munities is the strongest. The determining factor of the creation of folk culture is polarization. K s a w e r y P i w o c k i (art historian) begins by discussing the results of the latest research carried out by European ethnographers w i t h the aim of for­ m u l a t i n g the theoretical foundations of modern ethno­ graphy. The researcher on folk art applies two notions i n his w o r k , w h i c h have not been defined precisely, namely, " f o l k " and "folk art". They originate from the Romantic period and no longer have any historical meaning. These notions are different, they differ i n various social systems. T h a t is w h y folk art should be studied by comparing i t w i t h other art, not folk art, as the notion folk means something different i n different periods and social systems. Each group of a community has its o w n culture. Ethnographers should study a l l cultures that differ from the official culture. C u l t u r a l models are passed from one social strata to another and elements of official culture can also become folk culture. E t h n o ­ graphers should study the culture of various groups i n different periods and compare them w i t h the c u l t u r a l standards of their own times. Studies should be made, for instance, of guild art, amateur art, for i t is different f r o m the standard art of a given period. I n the author's opinion social differentiation causes c u l t u r a l differen­ t i a t i o n although this does not always apply to a l l ele­ ments. He agrees w i t h the v i e w of Levy-Strauss that the development of cultures is the result of differences between social strata. The method of research here is to compare the various strata. K r z y s z t o f M a k u l s k i (ethnographer) considers the problem of the genesis of folk art on the example of mediaeval A f r i c a n art. The v e r y n o t i o n " A f r i c a n a r t " is of a collective nature, rather vague. This notion, apart f r o m o r i g i n a l w o r k s of A f r i c a n art, also includes works of A r a b i a n and Ethiopian o r i g i n and also objects made today for r i c h tourists. The earliest examples of artistic w o r k i n A f r i c a are the rock paintings i n the Sahara and i n the mountainous regions of East and South Africa. I t is d i f f i c u l t to l i n k the rock paintings genetically w i t h other t r a d i t i o n a l fields of art such as masks, carvings, weaving, artistic m e t a l - w o r k , but i n m a n y cases c o n t i n u i t y can be traced. I n the t r i b a l communities of Africa, art was an integrating factor, a symbol of group traditions and ties. T r i b a l art was conventionalized. Alongside the t r i b a l communities, states w i t h a differentiated social structure also existed as early as the 14th century. The social differentiations could be seen v e r y clearly i n art. The author examines the problem on the example of the state-towns Ife and Benin. A r t i s t i c handicrafts of a very high standard developed there. Objects were made of bronze, gold, i v o r y for the elite strata. I n addition to the objects made for the elite strata, there was also t r i b a l art, that is, objects made from less expensive and less durable materials. A p a r t from diffe­ rences i n the materials used, their functional character also differed. The elite art was to enhance the court, i t was a sign of power. There are also differences i n style. The art of the courts consisted i n works of art made by artisans but based on alien designs. These "borrowed" patterns came f r o m outside, through the towns, as a result of trade contacts. A n analogical process is now going on i n modern A f r i c a n art. A study of these analogies w o u l d help i n understanding the social transformations that are now t a k i n g place i n Africa. Zofia Szyfelbejn - Sokolowicz (ethno­ grapher), expresses the v i e w that comparisons should be made of the same cultures i n various geographical regions. The same method can be used i n studies on art. The determining factor i n the creation of folk culture is social differentiation. I n m a n y societies folk culture is d y i n g out. Its preservation is facilitated by the iso­ lation of a given group, not necessarily from the spatial point of v i e w but f r o m the s p i r i t u a l and legal aspect. The weak penetration of i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the elite strata to the non-elite is not a creative stimulant and only leads to the asimilation of certain elements. The longer the isolation of a group, the longer folk culture lasts there. I n Poland we are observing the disappearance of f o l k culture, and f o r this reason the ethnographer should study other structures. A n n a K o w a l s k a - L e w i c k a (ethnographer) is i n favour of the v i e w that i n the earliest phase of the development of a society the culture is u n i f o r m , i t is t r i b a l culture. There is no differentiation i n art and there is no differentiation between the culture of the lowest and the highest strata. I n L a t i n A m e r i c a , u n t i l the Spanish came there, despite social differentiation, there was no differentiation i n the field of art, the only difference being a quantitative one, not qualitative. I n the stage w h e n the society is split into elite and non-elite strata (in Poland, the time w h e n C h r i s t i a n i t y was introduced), the r u l i n g strata takes its c u l t u r a l pattern from an alien society. The creative w o r k of the lower strata develops more freely. Folk art, separated from national art as a whole, is not f u l l y creative for it adopts c u l t u r a l values from the elite group. As time goes on i t is greatly differentiated. I n the t h i r d stage of development the makers and receivers of folk c u l ­ ture are conditioned by the c u l t u r a l standard surrounding them. I n the author's opinion we should regard as folk culture that culture w h i c h is created w i t h i n the f r a m e ­ w o r k of one national organism by groups that do not f u l l y participate i n the elite culture. Andrzej J a k i m o w i c z (art historian) writes about the character and scope of the notion of folk art, g i v i n g examples from Orissa (India). The folk a r t of Orissa is, above a l l , the art of p r i m i t i v e tribes (Saora, Oraon). I t consists of m u r a l paintings on r u r a l cottages w h i c h are connected w i t h rites and magic. This art has aroused the interest only of ethnologists. The name of folk art from Orissa is also given to carvings, p a i n - 245 �tings and artistic handicrafts made by professional artists or artisans. This historical art has its origin in official mediaeval art. The works of art were produced by professional artists associated in guilds. Their works of art are purchased by religious institutions and sold at bazaars in the towns. This art was relegated to the rank of „folk art" in the 19th century, when the pattern of official art changed as a result of the influence of British schools of art. Also in the 19th century, the so-oalled bazaar painting of Kalighat flourished in Calcutta. Former court miniature painters began to mass produce drawings — scenes from life (fig. 9) for anonymous customers. The examples of "folk" art from Orissa point to the connection of folk art with pro­ cesses of social polarization. J a c e k O l ę d z k i (ethnographer) writes about m a ­ terials from Mongolia. He deals with the culture of the nomad herdsmen, in two aspects: the herdsmens' house­ holds, their personal life, and their beliefs. The author discusses the working tools of the herdsman, the fur­ nishing of their „Jurts" (tents) and the clothes they wear. I n all fields of their culture we find objects made by artisans and by the shepherds themselves. The most valuable products of artistic craftsmen are saddles, harnesses, snuffnboxes, tinder-boxes and orna­ ments for women's garments. A distinct difference can be seen between the objects made by artisans and those made by the herdsmen. The differences are of a qualitative nature. These differences are not connected with social differentiation, for in this case the diffe­ rences are expressed in the quantity of such works of art possessed. Among the nomad population of Mongolia we do not find the two cultural trends — elite and non-elite. Personal belongings and elements of costume did not differ in style within the various groups according to the size of their possessions. The fact that the nomad population had no towns was not conducive to diffe­ rentiation in handicrafts. This can also be seen in works of art of a sacral nature. Primitive imagination origi­ nating from shamanism occurred alongside objects of a complicated and well developed technique of work­ manship and the sophisticated iconography of the Lamas. The carvings and paintings found in the "Jurts" dif­ fered from the art to be found in the monasteries. These differences were in the workmanship, not in style. The fields of art characteristic for pastoral com­ munities in Europe, for instance, carving, did not de­ velop among the Mongolian herdsmen. This can be explained by the different character of the household of the Mongolian herdsman — the nomadic life he leads living in tents. This was not because the herdsmen did not have a talent for carving. The author also deals with the modern folk art of Mongolia, which follows the traditional patterns. The materials from Mongolia prove that polarization of culture is not only connected with social inequali­ ties, but also with the functioning of a given economic system. The factors having a polarizing influence are a settled mode of life, the development of agriculture and handic­ rafts and the appearance of villages and towns. J a n S t a s z e w s k i (musicologist). Musicology also uses the term "folk art" which has not been precisely defined as yet. I n the course of work on a 17th century musical manuscript in the Jagiellonian Library, the author found several passages from a canzona by Mielczewski (17th century composer). Musicologists have said that in Mielczewski's works there are elerconts of Polish folk music of the 17th century, thus demonstrating the folk character of the manuscript from the Jagiellonian University. Musical passages from the canzona and the manuscript are also to be found in Italian and German music. It cannot be proved indubitably that the passages are folk ones or that they are not. The author suggests that they should be defined as popular music. Popular art did not necessarily function in a given social strata. Popular music could in time become folk music in the fuctional sense. The author's definition of folk music is that it is the music of the peasants. L u d w i k B i e l a w s k i (musicologist). The notions folk and folk culture are associated with the 19th cen­ tury. These notions were instruments of scientific cogni­ tion, making it possible to give a name to certain sets of cultural phenomena. The author, giving as an example the person of Oskar Kolberg, deliberates on the problem of the i n ­ fluence researchers exert on the process of the creation of folk culture, its functioning in the society. Kolberg grouped melodies, giving them the common name of "Krakowiaks", "Mazurkas", even though these names were not used in the localities where they occurred. His grouping has led to the firm conviction that they are associated with a given region. So Kolberg inter­ fered i n the process of the creation of folk culture and consolidated the sense of regional differences. The whole of the culture of Kolberg's time functioned accord­ ing to the principle of opposing folk culture to artistic (professional) culture; today it functions according to the principle of opposing artistic culture to mass culture. J u l i a n L e w a ń s k i (literary and theatre historian). In the field of literature and the theatre, the classifica­ tion of a work according to the milieu in which it was created is just as difficult as in other fields. The author calls for caution in using term "folk", and suggests instead the use of the terms: native and elite non-native culture. In the literature of the 16th and 17th century, middle class writings have been distinguished. Within this "compartment" we have works of varying tendencies according to milieu (of the ministrel ballad type, middle class, Jesuit). The same applies to theatrical works. In the classic repertoire (intermedia, misteria), associated with the elite strata there are texts of "folk" origin. The author suggests using the notions of "creative" culture and "composing" culture. The notion "native" culture is closely related to the notion of "composing" culture. The features of composing culture are: 1) adoption of stereotypes, the limits of their meaning being very vague, 2) overgrowth of form which supersedes the content, 3) freedom, the work of art is not subjected to critical control, 4) nearness to each other of the recei­ ver, the place where the work comes into being and the author of the work. According to the author it should be assumed that as from the Middle Ages many cultures' of a similar basic cultural pattern have existed in Poland. I n the literature and theatrical works of the Middle Ages there is no opposition of elite culture and folk culture. The term that should be used here is "middle" culture, which is more universal. Referring to works of today, one should speak of so-called mass culture, not folk culture. Today there are groups representing the culture of milieus with their own creative centres. A l e k s a n d e r J a c k o w s k i (art sociologist). The notion folk art is a product of the Romantic period. At that time it had a different meaning. It is not a lo­ gical, closed category, it is a notion which is not precise and has no historical meaning. One cannot reject the traditional notion "folk", but one can — keeping to the general meaning of the term — use terms of a narrower scope and of more concrete meaning in research work. There is a danger of the separateness of phenomena being blurred and erased by defining them by one common term. What is folk art? Does the creative work of the urban proletariat conform to its canons? The accepted division into taught culture and folk culture is a considerable oversimplification if we are dealing with indirect phenomena (non-folk and u n ­ taught). At the present stage of our knowledge, the use of the term folk art makes it impossible to carry out a correct analysis of cultural phenomena. The notion must undergo constant revision and precise definitions should be made. �П О Л Ь С К О Е КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ № 4 ЖУРНАЛ Н А Р О Д Н О Е ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ГОД И З Д А Н И Я X X I И С К У С С Т В О ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК 1967 РЕЗЮМЕ В п е р в о й ч а с т и номера п е ч а т а е т с я о б р а б о т а н н а я стенограмма Д И С К У С С И И , П О С В Я Щ Е Н Н О Й ПРО­ БЛЕМАМ ГЕНЕЗИСА ПОНЯТИЙ О НАРОДНОЙ К У Л Ь ­ ТУРЕ, В ОСОБЕННОСТИ Ж Е О НАРОДНОМ И С К У С ­ СТВЕ. Д и с к у с с и ю о р г а н и з о в а л К а б и н е т по и с с л е д о в а н и ю непрофессионального искусства при Институте искусств П о л ь с к о й А к а д е м и и Н а у к совместно с н а ш е й р е д а к ­ цией. В д и с к у с с и и п р и н и м а л и у ч а с т и е и с к у с с т в о в е д ы , этнографы, музыкологи-фольклористы, литературовед и с о ц и о л о г - и с к у с с т в о в е д . Д л я того, ч т о б ы сосредото­ ч и т ь в н и м а н и е н а особо в а ж н ы х п р о б л е м а х , м ы п р е д ­ л о ж и л и и з в е с т н у ю схему, по которой д о л ж н а б ы л а вестись д и с к у с с и я , а и м е н н о : 1) О х в а т п о н я т и й н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы и и х о п р е ­ деление, 1) П о п ы т к а о п р е д е л е н и я п о н я т и я народного и с к у с ­ ства, х а р а к т е р этого я в л е н и я . Ц е л ь ю д и с к у с с и и б ы л о н а й т и ответ на р я д в о п р о ­ сов, в о л н у ю щ и х и с с л е д о в а т е л е й народного и с к у с с т в а . У с т а н о в л е н н ы е в свое в р е м я т е о р е т и ч е с к и е пред­ п о с ы л к и н е всегда могут п р и м е н я т ь с я п р и и з у ч е н и и современного народного творчества. Традиционное понятие народной к у л ь т у р ы и творчества может п р и ­ вести к о г р а н и ч е н и ю и с с л е д о в а н и й , м е ш а я о б р а т и т ь в н и м а н и е на с у щ е с т в е н н ы е п р о б л е м ы , в ы с т у п а ю щ и е з а п р е д е л ы этого п о н я т и я . Н о в ы е т е о р е т и ч е с к и е п р е д ­ п о с ы л к и д о л ж н ы и с х о д и т ь и з обобщенного опыта исследователей и представителей р а з л и ч н ы х дис­ циплин. К с а в е р ы П и в о ц к и (искусствовед) говорит в н а ­ ч а л е своего в ы с т у п л е н и я о р е з у л ь т а т а х новейших исследований европейских этнологов, поставивших себе ц е л ь ю с ф о р м у л и р о в а т ь т е о р е т и ч е с к и е о с н о в ы с о ­ временной этнографии. Исследователь, изучающий народное искусство, пользуется двумя неуточненными понятиями: „народ'' и „ н а р о д н о е и с к у с с т в о " . Это п о н я т и я , р о ж д е н н ы е э п о ­ хой р о м а н т и з м а , в н е и с с т о р и ч е с к и е . П о н я т и я эти р а з л и ч н ы и м е н я ю т с я в з а в и с и м о с т и от и з м е н е н и я о б щ е с т в е н н ы х систем. Поэтому, з а н и ­ м а я с ь и с с л е д о в а н и е м н а р о д н о ю и с к у с с т в а , н а д о со­ п о с т а в л я т ь его п р о и з в е д е н и я с не н а р о д н ы м т в о р ­ чеством, ибо п о н я т и е н а р о д а о п я т ь т а к и б ы в а е т р а з ­ н ы м в з а в и с и м о с т и от в р е м е н и и о б щ е с т в е н н ы х систем. У к а ж д о й общественной группы иная культура. Этно­ г р а ф и я д о л ж н а изучать все культуры, отличающиеся от о ф и ц и а л ь н о п р и н я т о й . М о д е л и к у л ь т у р ы п е р е д а ю т ­ ся от одной о б щ е с т в е н н о й г р у п п ы к д р у г о й и э л е м е н ­ ты официальной культуры становятся народными. Этнографы д о л ж н ы рассматривать культуру различ­ н ы х групп р а з л и ч н ы х периодов в сопоставлении с со­ временным к у л ь т у р н ы м стандартом. Так, например, следует изз'чать ц е х о в о е и л ю б и т е л ь с к о е искусство, ибо оно я в л я е т с я и н ы м , чем с т а н д а р т н о е и с к у с с т в о данного периода. А в т о р с ч и т а е т , что с о ц и а л ь н а я д и ф ф е р е н ц и я в ы з ы в а е т в свою о ч е р е д ь к у л ь т у р н у ю , но не о б я з а т е л ь н о в с е х э л е м е н т о в . О н с о л и д а р е н в своих взглядах с Леви-Штраусом и утверждает, что к у л ь ­ тура р а з в и в а е т с я на р а з л и ч и я х в у р о в н е о б щ е с т в е н ­ н ы х групп. Н а у ч н ы й метод з а к л ю ч а е т с я в с о п о с т а в л е ­ нии э т и х у р о в н е й . София Шифельбейн-Соколевич (этно­ граф) у т в е р ж д а е т , что следует с о п о с т а в л я т ь одни и те ж е к у л ь т у р ы (например, п е р и о д с о б и р а т е л е й ' к о п а т е ­ лей) в р а з л и ч н ы х г е о г р а ф и ч е с к и х з о н а х . Т а к о й ж е метод м о ж н о п р и м е н я т ь п р и и с с л е д о в а н и и и с к у с с т в а . Детерминантом возникновения народной культуры я в л я е т с я с о ц и а л ь н а я д и ф ф е р е н ц и а ц и я . Во м н о г и х об­ щ е с т в а х н а р о д н а я к у л ь т у р а глохнет. Ее с о х р а н е н и ю способствует и з о л я ц и я д а н н о й г р у п п ы , и з о л я ц и я д у ­ х о в н а я либо ю р и д и ч е с к а я , но н е о б я з а т е л ь н о т е р р и т о ­ р и а л ь н а я . Слабо п р о н и к а ю щ а я и з в ы с ш и х кругов в низшие, информация не является творческим сти­ м у л о м и ведет л и ш ь к п р и с в о е н и ю н е к о т о р ы х э л е м е н ­ тов к у л ь т у р ы . Ч е м д о л ь ш е п р о д о л ж а е т с я и з о л я ц и я к а к о й н и б у д ь г р у п п ы , тем д о л ь ш е с о х р а н я е т с я н а р о д ­ н а я к у л ь т у р а . В П о л ь ш е н а б л ю д а е т с я постепенное и с ч е з н о в е н и е н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы и поэтому э т н о ­ г р а ф и я должна заняться исследованием других струк­ тур. Автор призывает к сопоставлению аграрных к у л ь ­ т у р р а з л и ч н ы х г е о г р а ф и ч е с к и х зон п о с к о л ь к у в э т и х обществах поляризация культуры проявляется наи­ более с и л ь н о . Д е т е р м и н а н т о м в о з н и к н о в е н и я н а р о д н о й культуры является поляризация. А н н а К о в а л ь с к а - Л е в и ц к а (этнограф) п р и ­ держивается мнения, что в начальной ф а з е развития о б щ е с т в а к у л ь т у р а однородна и я в л я е т с я п л е м е н н о й к у л ь т у р о й . Нет р а з л и ч и й в искусстве, нет р а з л и ч и й м е ж д у к у л ь т у р о й с а м ы х н и з ш и х слов общества и са­ м ы х в ы с ш и х . До п р и б ы т и я и с п а н ц е в на т е р р и т о р и и Л а т и н с к о й А м е р и к и н е б ы л о д и ф ф е р е н ц и а ц и и в об­ л а с т и искусства, н е с м о т р я н а о б щ е с т в е н н о е р а с с л о е ­ ние. С у щ е с т в о в а л и л и ш ь к о л и ч е с т в е н н ы е , а н е к а ч е ­ ственные различия. В период р а с ч л е н е н и я о б щ е с т в а на п р и в и л е г и р о ­ в а н н ы е и н е п р и в и л е г и р о в а н н ы е с о с л о в и я (в П о л ь ш е момент п р и н я т и я х р и с т и а н с т в а ) п р а в я щ е е сословие заимствует образцы ч у ж о й культуры. Творчество низ­ ш и х сословий р а з в и в а е т с я более свободно. Н а р о д н о е искусство в ы д е л е н н о е и з о б щ е н а ц и о н а л ь н о г о , не я в ­ ляется вполне творческим и перенимает культурные ц е н н о с т и и з б р а н н о й г р у п п ы . Со в р е м е н е м н а с т у п а е т значительная д и ф ф е р е н ц и а ц и я искусства. В третьей ф а з е развития творцы и потребители народной к у л ь ­ т у р ы з а в и с я т от о к р у ж а ю щ е й и х с т а н д а р т н о й к у л ь ­ туры. П о м н е н и ю а в т о р а н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р о й следует с ч и ­ т а т ь , ту, к о т о р а я с о з д а е т с я в р а м к а х единого н а ц и о ­ н а л ь н о г о о р г а н и з м а теми г р у п п а м и , к о т о р ы е н е ц е л и ­ ком участвуют в элитной культуре. К ж и ш т о ф Макульски (этнограф) р а с с м а т р и ­ вает проблему генезиса народного и с к у с с т в а н а основе средневекового а ф р и к а н с к о г о и с к у с с т в а . Само п о н я т и е „ а ф р и к а н с к о е и с к у с с т в о " я в л я е т с я обобщенным, н е ­ четким. Наряду с оригинальными изделиями а ф р и ­ к а н с к о г о и с к у с с т в а , оно о х в а т ы в а е т а р а б с к и е и э ф и о п ­ ские изделия, а т а к ж е предметы, изготовляемые для богатых туристов. Самыми ранними произведениями художественного творчества в А ф р и к е являются на­ скальные рисунки в Сахаре, а т а к ж е горных райо­ н а х Восточной и Ю ж н о й А ф р и к и . Т р у д н о г е н е т и ч е с к и у в я з ы в а т ь н а с к а л ь н ы е рисунки с другими традицион­ н ы м и о т р а с л я м и искусства, к а к , н а п р и м е р , маски, с к у л ь п т у р ы , т к а ч е с т в о , м е т а л л о п л а с т и к а ; все ж е во многих случаях можно проследить эту преемствен­ ность. В племенных а ф р и к а н с к и х обществах искусство б ы л о с в я з у ю щ и м элементом, символом т р а д и ц и и и к р о в н ы х уз. П л е м е н н о е и с к у с с т в о б ы л о к о н в е н ц и о ­ н а л ь н ы м . Н а р я д у с п л е м е н н ы м и о б щ е с т в а м и в X I V в., с у щ е с т в о в а л и у ж е с т р а н ы с. д и ф ф е р е н ц и р о в а н н о й о б щ е с т в е н н о й с т р у к т у р о й . С о ц и а л ь н ы е р а з л и ч и я от­ четливо выступали в искусстве. Автор рассматривает эту п р о б л е м у на о с н о в е г о р о д о в - г о с у д а р с т в : Ифа и Б е н и н , где ш и р о к о р а з в е р н у л о с ь в ы с о к о х у д о ж е ­ ственное ремесло. Т а м в ы п о л н я л и с ь п р е д м е т ы и з б р о н ­ з ы , золота, слоновой кости д л я п р и в и л е г и р о в а н н ы х слоев общества. Вместе с тем с у щ е с т в о в а л о п л е м е н ­ н о е искусство, м а с т е р а которого у п о т р е б л я л и д л я своих и з д е л и й менее п р о ч н ы й и ц е н н ы й м а т е р и а л . К р о м е разницы в изготовительном сырье была т а к ж е р а з ­ ница в ф у н к ц и и художественных изделий. Элитное искусство о б с л у ж и в а л о д в о р , п р о с л а в л я л о в л а с т ь и м у ­ щ и х . С у щ е с т в о в а л и т а к ж е р а з л и ч н ы е стили. П р и д в о р ­ ное искусство б ы л о в р у к а х р е м е с л е н н и к о в и опи­ ралось на иностранные образцы. Образцы заимство­ в а л и с ь и з в н е , ч е р е з города, путем т о р г о в ы х с в я з е й . А н а л о г и ч н ы е п р о ц е с с ы н а б л ю д а ю т с я в современном а ф р и к а н с к о м и с к у с с т в е . П р о с л е д и в эти аналогии, м о ж ­ но было бы понять социальные изменения, совершаю­ щ и е с я в современной А ф р и к е . 247 �Аыджей Якимович (икусствовед) р а с с м а т р и ­ вает х а р а к т е р и совокупность понятий, определяющих н а р о д н о е искусство, п р и в о д я п р и м е р ы и з Ориссы (Индия). Н а р о д н о е искусство О р и с с ы — это. п р е ж д е всего искусство п р и м и т и в н ы х п л е м е н (Саора, Ораон). С т е н н а я роспись с е л ь с к и х домов носит р и т у а л ь н ы й и м а г и ч е с к и й х а р а к т е р . Этим творчеством и н т е р е с у ю т ­ ся т о л ь к о этнологи. К народному искусству О р и с с ы следует т а к ж е п р и ч и с л и т ь с к у л ь т у р у , ж и в о п и с ь и х у ­ дожественное ремесло — произведения профессиона­ лов. Свое н а ч а л о , оно берет от средневекового о ф и ­ ц и а л ь н о г о творчества. М а с т е р а м и его я в л я ю т с я х у д о ­ ж н и к и — п р о ф е с с и о н а л ь , о б ъ е д и н е н н ы е в ц е х а х . Они п р о д а ю т с в о и и з д е л и я н а городских б а з а р а х , г л а в н ы м образом у ч р е ж д е н и я м р е л и г и о з н о г о к у л ь т а . Этот в и д искусства б ы л сведен к р о л и народного искусства в X I X в., когда и з м е н и л а с ь м о д е л ь о ф и ц и а л ь н о г о искусства в связи с деятельностью английских худо­ ж е с т в е н н ы х ш к о л . В X I X в. в К а л ь к у т т е т а к ж е р а с ц ­ вела т а к н а з . б а з а р н а я ж и в о п и с ь из Kaiighat. Б ы в ­ ш и е п р и д в о р н ы е м и н и а т ю р и с т ы с т а л и в массовом п о р я д к е в ы п о л н я т ь р и с у н к и , о т о б р а ж а ю щ и е сценки из ж и з н и (ил. 9) д л я а н о н и м н ы х потребителей. П р и ­ м е р ы „ н а р о д н о г о " т в о р ч е с т в а О р и с с ы у к а з ы в а ю т на с в я з ь народного искусства с процессами о б щ е с т в е н ­ ной п о л я р и з а ц и и . Я ц е к О л е н д з к и (этнограф) о б с у ж д а е т м а т е р и а ­ лы, с о б р а н н ы е в Монголии. П р е д м е т о м его о б с у ж д е н и й является скотоводческая культура, рассмативаемая в д в у х а с п е к т а х : 1) скотоводческого х о з я й с т в а , 2) л и ч ­ ной ж и з н и и в е р о в а н и й . А в т о р говорит об о р у д и я х труда скотовода, о его о д е ж д е , об устройстве ю р т ы . Во всех о б л а с т я х к у л ь т у р ы имеются р е м е с л е н н ы е и з ­ д е л и я и п р е д м е т ы .собственного и з г о т о в л е н и я ското­ водов. С а м ы м и ц е н н ы м и п р е д м е т а м и х у д о ж е с т в е н н о г о ремесла я в л я ю т с я седла, у п р я ж ь , т а б а к е р к и , огнива и женские украшения. Изделия ремесленников и не­ р е м е с л е н н и к о в о п р е д е л е н н о р о з н я т с я к а ч е с т в о м , но это не имеет ничего общего с с о ц и а л ь н о й д и ф ф е р е н ­ ц и а ц и е й — здесь играет р о л ь р а з н и ц а в к о л и ч е с т в е н ­ ном о т н о ш е н и и . Среди п а с т у ш е с к о г о н а с е л е н и я М о н ­ голии не б ы л о д в у х к у л ь т у р н ы х т е ч е н и й — элитного и народного. Н е с м о т р я на с у щ е с т в о в а н и е р а з л и ч н ы х и м у щ е с т в е н н ы х групп, п р е д м е т ы личного п о т р е б л е н и я и д е т а л и о д е ж д ы в э т и х г р у п п а х не р о з н и л и с ь стилем Отсутствие городов не способствовало р а з н о о б р а з и ю ремесла. Это з а м е ч а е т с я т а к ж е в области х у д о ж е с т в е н ­ н ы х и з д е л и й религиозного к у л ь т а . П р и м и т и в н ы е п о н я ­ тия, с в я з а н н ы е с ш а м а н с т в о м , в ы с т у п а ю т р я д о м с о б ъ ­ ектами, требующими сложной, развернутой техники выполнения, с предметами тонкой иконографии ла­ маизма. Р е з ь б а и ж и в о п и с ь в ю р т а х р о з н я т с я от искусства в монастырях, причем разница заключается не в стиле, а в исполнении. Среди м о н г о л ь с к и х скотоводов не п о л у ч и л и р а з ­ в и т и я те о т р а с л и творчества, к о т о р ы е т а к х а р а к т е р н ы д л я скотоводческого общества в Европе, к а к , н а п р и м е р , р е з ь б а . Это о б ъ я с н я е т с я особым, чисто к о ч е в н и ч е с к и м х а р а к т е р о м скотоводческого х о з я й с т в а , но о т н ю д ь не отсутствием способностей. Д а л е е а в т о р з а т р а г и в а е т вопрос современного н а ­ родного т в о р ч е с т в а в Монголии, которое п р и д е р ж и ­ вается традиционных форм. М а т е р и а л ы из М о н г о л и и с в и д е т е л ь с т в у ю т о том, что п о л я р и з а ц и я к у л ь т у р ы с в я з а н а не т о л ь к о с со­ циальным неравенством, а т а к ж е с функционирова­ нием о п р е д е л е н н о й х о з я й с т в е н н о й системы. Ф а к т о р а м и , в л и я ю щ и м и на п о л я р и з а ц и ю , я в л я е т с я о с е д л ы й образ ж и з н и , р а з в и т и е сельского х о з я й с т в а и ремесла, а т а к ж е в о з н и к н о в е н и е д е р е в е н ь и городор. Я н С т е н ш е в с к и (музыколог). М у з ы к о л о г и я т а к ­ ж е пользуется неуточненным понятием „народного творчества". И з у ч а я х р а н я щ и е с я в Ягеллонской би­ б л и о т е к е м у з ы к а л ь н ы е р у к о п и с и X V I I I в., автор н а ­ т о л к н у л с я на н е с к о л ь к о м у з ы к а л ь н ы х ц и т а т и з к а н ­ ц о н ы М е л ь ч е в с к о г о (композитор X V I I в.). М у з ы к о л о г к у т в е р ж д а л и , что т в о р ч е с т в о М е л ь ч е в с к о г о с о д е р ж и т э л е м е н т ы п о л ь с к о й н а р о д н о й м у з ы к и X V I I в., д о к а ­ з ы в а я т а к и м образом н а р о д н ы й х а р а к т е р р у к о п и с е й Я г е л л о н с к о й библиотеки. М у з ы к а л ь н ы е ц и т а т ы из к а н ­ цоны и рукописей повторяются т а к ж е в истальнской и немецкой музыке. Н е л ь з я с полной уверенность» 248 с к а з а т ь я в л я ю т с я ли эти ц и т а т ы н а р о д н ы м и . А з т о р п р е д л а г а е т о п р е д е л и т ь их к а к п о п у л я р н у ю м у з ы к у . Функции популярного искусства вовсе необязательно о б у с л о в л е н ы . О п р е д е л е н и е о б щ е с т в е н н о й средой. П о ­ п у л я р н а я м у з ы к а могла со временем стать н а р о д н о й в функциональном смысле. Автор епределяет народ­ ную м у з ы к у к а к п р о д у к т к р е с т ь я н с к о г о творчеств;'.. Л ю д в и к Б е л я в с к и (музыколог). П о н я т и е н а ­ рода, народной к у л ь т у р ы с в я з а н о с X I X в. Эти п о н я ­ тия стали п о з н а в а т е л ь н ы м н а у ч н ы м инструментом д л я о п р е д е л е н и я и з в е с т н ы х групп к у л ь т у р н ы х я в л е н и й . С с ы л а я с ь на п р и м е р О с к а р а К о л ь б е р г а , автор п ы ­ т а е т с я р е ш и т ь вопрос, в к а к о й мере и с с л е д о в а т е л и в л и я ю т па процесс ф о р м и р о в а н и я н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы , на ее ф у н к ц и и в обществе. К о л ь б е р г г р у п п и р о в а л м е ­ лодии, д а в а я им общие н а з в а н и я „ к р а к о в я к и " , „ м а ­ з у р к и " , х о т я эти н а з в а н и я не у п о т р е б л я л и с ь в д а н н о й местности. К о л ь б е р г у б е ж д а л , что они с в я з а н ы с о п р е ­ деленны:.! регионом. Т а к и м образом он в л и я л на п р о цнес с о з и д а н и я н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы , п о д ч е р к и в а л р е ­ г и о н а л ь н ы е с в о е о б р а з н ы е особенности. Вся современная Кольбергу культура существовала на основе о п п о з и ц и и народной и х у д о ж е с т в е н н о й (про­ ф е с с и о н а л ь н о й ) к у л ь т у р ы , а т е п е р ь д е й с т в у е т на основе противопоставления художественной к у л ь т у р ы массо­ вой к у л ь т у р е . Ю л и а н Л е в а н ь с к и (литературовед, театролог). В области л и т е р а т у р ы и т е а т р а точно т а к ж е , к а к в д р у г и х о т р а с л я х искусства, т р у д н о п р о в е с т и к л а с с и ­ ф и к а ц и ю п р о и з в е д е н и й с т о ч к и з р е н и я их п р и н а д л е ж ­ ности к о п р е д е л е н н о й среде. А в т о р советует о с м о т р и т е л ь н о п р и б е г а т ь к о п р е д е ­ лению „народный", предлагая пользоваться определе­ ниями: отечественная культура и элитная, ч у ж а я . В л и т е р а т у р е X V I и X V I I вв. б ы л а в ы д е л е н а м е ­ щ а н с к а я п и с ь м е н н о с т ь . Р> соответствии с этим в с т р е ч а ­ ются произведения с различными тенденциями сослов­ ного х а р а к т е р а ( п р о и з в е д е н и я с т р а н с т в у ю щ и х п е в ц о в , м е щ а н , иезуитов). Т а к о е ж е я в л е н и е н а б л ю д а е т с я в театре. В к л а с с и ч е с к о м р е п е р т у а р е (интермедии, м и ­ стерии), к о т о р ы й с в я з а н с и з б р а н н ы м и к р у г а м и , и м е ­ ются тексты „народного" происхождения. А в т о р п р е д л а г а е т в в е с т и понятие, „творческие" к у л ь т у р ы и „ с о ч и н и т е л ь н ы е " к у л ь т у р ы . П о н я т и е „оте­ чественная" культура близко „сочинительской" к у л ь ­ туре. Ч е р т ы „ с о ч и н и т е л ь с к и х " к у л ь т у р : 1) п о л ь з о в а н и е стереотипами с н е у т о ч н е н н ы м з н а ч е н и е м , 2) п р е о б л а ­ д а н и е ф о р м ы над с о д е р ж а н и е м , 3) свобода, х у д о ж е ­ ственное п р о и з в е д е н и е не п о д л е ж и т к р и т и ч е с к о м у к о н ­ тролю, 4) с в я з ь м е ж д у потребителем, т в о р ч е с к о й м а с ­ терской и и с п о л н и т е л е м . По м н е н и ю а в т о р а с л е д у е т п р е д п о л о ж и т ь , что в П о л ь ш е со в р е м е н с р е д н е в е к о в ь я с у щ е с т в у е т р я д к у л ь ­ т у р с родственной, в основном, к у л ь т у р н о й схемой. В средневековых литературе и театре элитняа и на­ р о д н а я к у л ь т у р а не п р о т и в о п о с т а в л я ю т с я . В д а н н о м с л у ч а е следует у п о т р е б л я т ь о п р е д е л е н и е „средняя к у л ь т у р а " , к о т о р а я я в л я е т с я более у н и в е р с а л ь н о й . В н а с т о я щ е е в р е м я следует г о в о р и т ь о т а к н а з . м а с ­ совой, а не н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р е , п о с к о л ь к у т е п е р ь су­ щ е с т в у ю т к у л ь т у р ы о п р е д е л е н н о й с р е д ы с собствен­ ными творческими центрами. Александр Яцковски (социолог искусства). П о н я т и е народного и с к у с с т в а — это п р о д у к т эпохи р о м а н т и з м а . В то в р е м я суть этого п о н я т и я была иной. Оно не я в л я е т с я л о г и ч е с к и з а в е р ш е н н о й к а т е ­ горией, оно не уточнено и внесторично. Н е л ь з я от­ бросить т р а д и ц и о н н о е 'понятие „народ", но м о ж н о , с о х р а н и в его общее з н а ч е н и е , п о л ь з о в а т ь с я в н а у ч н ы х и с с л е д о в а н и я х более у з к а м и , более к о н к р е т н ы м и о п р е ­ д е л е н и я м и . С у щ е с т в у е т опасение з а т е р е т ь особенности о т д е л ь н ы х я в л е н и й , о п р е д е л я я и х общим н а з в а н и е м . Ч т о т а к о е н а р о д н о е искусство? О т в е ч а е т л и т в о р ­ чество городского п р о л е т а р и а т а его к а н о н а м ? О б щ е п р и н я т о е р а з д е л е н и е к у л ь т у р ы на ученую п н а р о д н у ю очень у п р о щ е н о , если дело к а с а е т с я п р о ­ м е ж у т о ч н ы х я в л е н и й (ненародное и неученое). П р и современном состоянии н а у к и у п о т р е б л е н и е п о н я т и я народного и с к у с с т в а м е ш а е т п р а в и л ь н о м у анализу к у л ь т у р н ы х я в л е н и й . Это п о н я т и е п р и х о д и т с я п о с т о я н ­ но п р о в е р я т ь и у т о ч н я т ь . � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/e8f6e83ff935e6b00a0bff3f0c17d0fb.pdf 5421c590f612cc61abec183e21e53acf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4462 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4151 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1975 t.29 z.1-2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1975 t.29 z.1-2 ; s. Language A language of the resource pol Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text Działalność zagraniczna muzeów w 1974 r. 1 — w y s t a w ę p n . „ P o l s k a sztuka l u ­ dowa, w z ó r - m o t y w - z n a k " , zor­ g a n i z o w a n ą przez Muz. Etno­ graficzne w Krakowie, ekspono­ w a n ą przez 68 d n i w Lozannie i W i n t e r t h u r (Szwajcaria) obej­ rzało 14.500 osób. W y s t a w ę t ę w T i l b u r g (Holandia) zwie­ dziło w ciągu 71 d n i — 4.250 w i ­ dzów, w Essen w ciągu 41 d n i — 15.000 osób, a w A n t w e r p i i w c i ą g u 21 d n i — 6.239 osób. 2 — w Warnie pokazano w y s t a w ę „ W s p ó ł c z e s n a sztuka ludowa woj. gdańskiego", przygotowaną przez Muz. Narodowe w G d a ń ­ sku. W ciągu 7 d n i zwiedziło j ą 15.500 osób. 3 — w Glasgow podczas d n i k u l t u r y polskiej pokazano polskie stroje ludowe ze zbiorów PMEtnograficznego w Warszawie. Obejrzało j ą 250 osób w ciągu 13 d n i . 4 — w Opawie (CSRS) w y s t a w ę „ T r a ­ dycje k u l t u r y ludowej w Polsce" z o r g a n i z o w a n ą przez Muz. Gór­ nośląskie w B y t o m i u zwiedziło w ciągu 46 d n i — 4.500 osób. 5 — w N R D pokazano w y s t a w ę „ O p o l s k a sztuka l u d o w a " przy­ g o t o w a n ą przez Muzeum Śląska Opolskiego (14 d n i — 4.000 osób) oraz „ S z t u k a ludowa Mazowsza" p r z y g o t o w a n ą przez Muzeum w P ł o c k u (32 d n i — 4.000 osób). (dane z B i u l e t y n u CZM) Wystawy i pokazy zagraniczne Cepelii w 1974 r. 1 •— U d z i a ł w wystawie gospodarczej w Moskwie (zestaw t k a n i n , cera­ m i k i ) z okazji 30-lecia P R L . S U M M A 2 —• W y s ł a n i e e k s p o n a t ó w „Opoczn i a n k i " i Sp. Rękodzieła A r t y ­ stycznego z Tomaszowa Maz. do Nowosybirska na w y s t a w ę . 3 — Zorganizowanie z e s t a w ó w dla wystaw objazdowych w B r a z y l i i (ok. 600 e k s p o n a t ó w ) , Francji, A n g l i i , Szwecji, R F N , Stanach Zjednoczonych, Meksyku. W y ­ stawami d y s p o n u j ą polskie kon­ sulaty w wymienionych krajach. 4 — Wystawa rzeźb St. Zagajew­ skiego w P a r y ż u . 5 — Zorganizowanie w Brukseli „Ce­ peliady", na k t ó r ą m . i n . w y ­ słano t w ó r c ó w ludowych — d e m o n s t r u j ą c y c h różne techniki i zespoły folklorystyczne. 6 — Wysłanie twórców-demonstra­ t o r ó w r ó ż n y c h technik i zespołów folklorystycznych na Święto P i ­ wa w Viese (Holandia). 7 — W y s ł a n i e do K o l d i n g (Dania) wystawy sztuki ludowej i ręko­ dzieła artystycznego z okazji „ D n i polskich". Norwegia Oslo, udział w wystawio P I H Z „ M a d e i n Poland". I V — V — obrazy 13 a u t o r ó w i rzeźby 8 autorów. RFN. Bonn, Gal. Bleidorn. W okresie od I — I X — trzytygodniowe indyw. wystawy Mickiewicz, Walickiej, Lesińskiego, Korsak, Warczygłowy, Ignarskiej. Regensburg. K u l t u r a m t . I V — obrazy i rzeźby. Krefeld. Gal. Króli. i rzeźby. I — obrazy Szwajcaria Morges. Gal. Pro A r t e Kaspar. I I — I V — wystawa indywidualna Płaskoemskiego. V — wystawa indywidualna Ociepki. Zurich. Gal. Strassberg — s t a ł a ekspo­ zycja i sprzedaż obrazów i rzeźb. Włochy Wystawy zagraniczne B H Z „ D E S A " w 1974 r. Australia Perth. U n i v . of Western. I — r z e ź b y . Glen Waverley. Jacaranda A r t Centre. X I I — obrazy, r z e ź b y . Austria W i e d e ń . Gal. Chr. Brandtstatter, I V — V — obrazy „ n a i w n e " 17 auto­ rów. Berlin Zachodni Ladengalerie. V I — V I I — wystawa indywidualna D ą b r o w s k i e j . V I I I — I X — wystawa indywidualna Denkiewicza. Weinachtsmarkt a m F u n k t u r m . X I I — r z e ź b y 35 t w ó r c ó w ludowych i naiwnych. R I E S « P W s p ó ł p r a c u j ą c a z B H Z „ D e s ą " Gal. L a Feluca w Rzymie zorganizowała wystawy w wielu galeriach włoskich p o k a z u j ą c m . i n . obrazy i rzeźby t w ó r c ó w ludowych i naiwnych z Pol­ ski. W y s t a w y o d b y ł y się: w Mediola­ nie, Pordenone, San Felice, Reggio Emilia, Erba, Padwa, Riccione. W Rzymie L a Feluca p o k a z a ł a indy­ w i d u a l n ą w y s t a w ę obrazów Adamca. * Ponadto dostarczono eksponaty do sklepów „Cepelii" w N o w y m J o r k u , Brukseli, na zlecenie „Cepelii" do Driebergen (Holandia), do galerii Elke Zimmer w Dusseldorfie, do gal. R u n h o f w K o l o n i i oraz dla kolekcjo­ nera Hansa Joachima Ortha z Dussel­ dorfu, k t ó r y w 1974 r. urządził w róż­ nych miastach R i ^ N — 29 wystaw polskiej sztuki ludowej i naiwnej. E 3 ł O M E SUMMARY OF ARTICLES This double issue of our periodical is devoted to collec­ tions and collectors of folk art i n Poland. The issue discusses the most important or particularly interesting private collections i n this country and brings an introductory article b y A . Jackowski " I n Praise of Collecting" (Po­ chwała zbieractwa). I t analyses the reasons w h y people make collections and the place of this phenomenon i n contemporary culture. The author regards private collec­ ting, among others, as a w a y o f enriching the collections made b y museums, because private collectors concentrate — often w i t h expert knowledge and great enthusiasm — on certain fields or subjects o f folk art, creating collections that are often of great value and anticipate, as i t were, the programme of subjects of interest t o museums. The private collector is not obliged to submit t o the opinions of commissions w h i c h as a rule evaluate works of art accord­ ing t o established values. Thus he sometimes includes in his collection new subjects and new phenomena that cannot be evaluated b y the criteria applied so far. The private collector is not afraid of taking risks or of subjective interests. I t often happens t h a t a private collection becomes the nucleus or an addition enriching museum collections. N . L i p p ó c z y , a Hungarian who settled i n Poland, presented his very large collection of paintings o f glase i n deposit to the Diocesan Museum i n T a r n ó w . Also, the collections M i c h a l s k i and the S z y m a ń s k i family, which are discussed i n this issue, have enriched museum collections. Others too, intend to hand over their collections t o the public i n the future, realising their value for the culture of our country and the fact t h a t they are i n many cases the only trace of the old culture of a given region. I n Poland, collection of objects of folk art is mainly due to fascination w i t h folk culture and desire to preserve examples of this art, b o t h old and contemporary. I n the latter case the interest of the collector often extends to 127 �the person of the artist (for instance, i n the case of Zimmerer, Siemion and Solowski). A l l this distinguishes private collect­ ing from the mass movement of collecting, treated as a hobby or sometimes as an investment. Of course, collecting is usually favoured by external conditions the possibility of penetrating a certain locality and accumulating a collection. This accounts for the fact t h a t collections are often made i n the provinces where there is more scope for the collector and i t is easier for h i m to find his exhibits. Collections are made by priests, lawyers, doctors, journalists and actors who travel about the country a lot, but there are also teachers and sporadic cases of representatives of other walks of life making collections (miners, farmers, manual workers). Among the most interesting of these collections, which is discussed more extensively, is t h a t of L i p p ó c z y , who for many years was a representative of Hungarian wine export t o Poland and during his travels accumulated a very large and valuable collection of paintings on glass; the collection of the C h r z ą s t o w s k i family i n the village of P o d e g r ó d (and the present issue deals here also w i t h the local community, their pride i n the collection, which they exhibit readily t o visitors to the village, especially foreign tourists, and the fact t h a t the old village inhabitants do not identify themselves w i t h this art as i t was collected by people who are relatively new arrivals i n those parts). I t is another matter w i t h the Paszyn centre, initiated and catalogued by the parish prieat Father N i t k a and the collection of the painter Z. K o w a l e w s k i , who has supplomented authentic examples of folk art w i t h his own carvings and paintings " i n the folk s p i r i t . " The actor i W . Siemion writes of his collection, which for h i m is a kind of " d i a r y " of meetings. J . P l u c i ń s k i , a teacher, describes the sad fate of the exhibits he collected at th local school w i t h the help of his pupils and which, due a lack of understanding on the p a r t of the local schc authorities wore later scattered i n various places. 1 Zimmerer, correspondent of the F R G radio wh settled i n Poland 19 years ago, writes of what i t moans to | h i m t o meet the artists who produce folk art and discusses the principles according t o which he made his very large collection (over 3,000 carvings and pictures). H e is not so interested i n the " a r t " itself b u t the m a n who creates i t and the reasons for his creative work and what the works of art he produces mean t o the m a n i n his life. He would fike his collection t o become a foundation-museum i n the future, testifying to the creative possibilities of man, which are a specific ,,lesson i n o p t i m i s m " for people who are old, i l l or handicapped i n some way. A . J a c k o w s k i also writes of Zimmerer and his collection. These and other articles deal w i t h the most important collections which are at the same time particularly inter­ esting for various reasons. I t is the intention of the Editorial Board t o demonstrate the reasons and motives behind ' the decision t o make these collections, t o present the person­ a l i t y of the collectors and give a brief descriptions of their I collections. PE3 Ю ME Двойной номер ж у р н а л а п о с в я щ е н к о л л е к ц и о н и ­ р о в а н и ю п р е д м е т о в народного и с к у с с т в а в П о л ь ш е . Номер с о д е р ж и т о б с у ж д е н и е в а ж н е й ш и х либо особен­ но и н т е р е с н ы х ч а с т н ы х собраний, а т а к ж е в с т у п и ­ т е л ь н у ю с т а т ь ю А. Я ц к о в с к о г о „ С о б и р а т е л ь с т в о д о ­ стойно п о х в а л ы " . В статье а н а л и з и р у ю т с я п р и ч и н ы в о з н и к н о в е н и я к о л л е к ц и й и з а н и м а е м о е и м и место в современной к у л ь т у р е . В к о л л е к ц и о н е р с к о м д в и ­ ж е н и и автор, м е ж д у прочим, о т м е ч а е т ш а н с ы п о п о л ­ нения достояния музеев, т а к - к а к собиратели уделяют в н и м а н и е , часто с б о л ь ш и м з н а н и е м д е л а и л ю б о в ь ю , — о т д е л ь н ы м темам, с о с т а в л я ю т к о л л е к ц и и , порой очень ценные, и н е р а з о п е р е ж а ю т и н т е р е с ы м у з е е в и их программы. Деятельность частных собирателей не о г р а н и ч и в а ю т комиссии, к о т о р ы е , к а к п р а в и л о , отдают п р е д п о ч т е н и е р а н е е п р и з н а н н ы м ц е н н о с т я м . Ввиду этого ч а с т н ы й с о б и р а т е л ь иногда о б р а щ а е т с я к новой т е м а т и к е , и н т е р е с у я с ь я в л е н и я м и , к к о т о р ы м п р е ж н и е к р и т е р и и оценок н е п р и м е н и м ы . Он не боится риска, с у б ъ е к т и в н о с т и своих у в л е ч е н и й . К о л л е к ц и и часто я в л я л и с ь и я в л я ю т с я основой либо с у щ е с т в е н н ы м п о п о л н е н и е м м у з е й н ы х собраний. Н. Л и п п у ч и , о с е в ш и й в П о л ь ш е венгр, п е р е д а л свое громадное собрание ж и в о п и с и на с т е к л е в м у з е й в Т а р нове; м у з е а л ь н ы м достоянием с т а л и т а к ж е р а с с м а т р и ­ в а е м ы е в н а с т о я щ е м номере собрания М и х а л ь с к о г о и Шиманьских. Впрочем известны и другие к о л л е к ­ ц и о н е р ы , к о т о р ы е н а м е р е н ы в б у д у щ е м п е р е д а т ь свои к о л л е к ц и и о б щ е с т в е н н о с т и о т д а в а я себе отчет в том, к а к о е большое з н а ч е н и е имеют и х собрания д л я п о л ь ­ ской к у л ь т у р ы , а т а к ж е в том, что и н е й р а з они являются единственным памятником давней к у л ь т у р ы региона. В П о л ь ш е собирание п р е д м е т о в народного и с к у с ­ ства п р е ж д е всего о б ъ я с н я е т с я у в л е ч е н и е м н а р о д н о й к у л ь т у р ы , а т а к ж е с т р е м л е н и е м у п р о ч и т ь ее с л е д ы , в п р о ш л о м , к а к и с о в р е м е н н ы е п р о я в л е н и я . Что к а ­ сается современной к у л ь т у р ы , то часто интерес соби­ р а т е л я р а с п р о с т р а н я е т с я т а к ж е на л и ч н о с т ь х у д о ж ­ н и к а (наприм. у Ц и м м е р е р а , Семёна, Сслёвсксго). Именно все это о т л и ч а е т у п о м я н у т у ю область к о л л е к ­ ционерства от массового с о б и р а т е л ь с т в а , р а с с м а т р и в а е ­ мого к а к хобби и л и ж е иногда к а к п о м е щ е н и е к а п и ­ тала. Разумеется коллекционерству благоприятствуют в н е ш н и е условия, о б л е г ч а ю щ и е п о и с к и в р а й о н е и н а ­ г р о м о ж д е н и е собраний. Отсюда часто в с т р е ч а ю т с я к о л ­ л е к ц и и в п р о в и н ц и и , т а к - к а к т а м нет к в а р т и р н ы х о г р а н и ч е н и й и легче н а й т и э к с п о н а т ы . Собирают д у - х о в н ы е л и ц а , а д в о к а т ы , в р а ч и , ж у р н а л и с т ы и актеры, к о т о р ы е много р а з ъ е з ж а ю т по с т р а н е , а т а к ж е учи­ т е л я и, в е д и н и ч н ы х с л у ч а я х , п р е д с т а в и т е л и других п р о ф е с с и й ( ш а х т е р ы , з е м л е д е л ь ц ы , рабочие). К с а м ы м и н т е р е с н ы м п р и н а д л е ж а т подробно об­ с у ж д а е м ы е к о л л е к ц и и : Л и п п у ч и , к о т о р ы й в течение i многих л е т п р и в о з и л в П о л ь ш у в и н а и з В е н г р и и и во в р е м я с в о и х п о е з д о к собрал б о л ь ш у ю и ц е н н у ю кол­ л е к ц и ю к а р т и н на с т е к л е , з а т е м к о л л е к ц и я Х ж о и с т о в с к и х , с о с т а в л е н н а я в д е р е в н е П о д е г р о д з е и рас- • с м а т р и в а е м а я на ф о н е оценок местной общественности (местные ж и т е л и г о р д я т с я этой к о л л е к ц и е й перед п р и е з ж и м и , особенно п е р е д и н о с т р а н н ы м и т у р и с т а м и по в то ж е в р е м я ч у в с т в у ю т себя непричастным», к ней, т а к - к а к с о б и р а т е л я м и б ы л и л ю д и , л и ш ь недав­ но п о с е л и в ш и е с я в и х деревне). И н а ч е д е л о обстоит с п а ш и п с к и м центром. Его и н и ц и а т о р о м я в л я е т с я м е с т н ы й с в я щ е н н и к , ксендз ! Н и т к а , к о т о р ы й составил его д о к у м е н т а ц и ю . Интересна т а к ж е к о л л е к ц и я х у д о ж н и к а - ж и в о п и с ц а 3. К о в а ­ л е в с к о г о к о т о р ы й п о п о л н я е т с о б р а н н ы е им подлинные экспонаты собственными скульптурами и картинами „в н а р о д н о м д у х е " . А к т е р В. Семён о п и с ы в а е т свою к о л л е к ц и ю , к о т о р у ю он с ч и т а е т с в о е о б р а з н ы м днев- ¡ н и к о м в с т р е ч ; у ч и т е л ь Я . П л ю т и н ь с к и вспоминает ¡ г р у с т н у ю и с т о р и ю э к с п о н а т о в , с о б р а н н ы х им в школе с п о м о щ ь ю у ч е н и к о в . Э к с п о н а т ы эти постигла п е ч а л ь ­ н а я у ч а с т ь , ибо м е с т н ы е ш к о л ь н ы е в л а с т и , не при­ д а в а л и им з н а ч е н и я и поэтому к о л л е к ц и я б ы л а рас- • сеяна. Л. Ц и м м е р е р , р а д и о к о р р е с п о н д е н т Ф Р Г , посе­ л и в ш и й с я 19 л е т тому н а з а д в П о л ь ш е , подробно i п и ш е т о том, к а к о е з н а ч е н и е имеет д л я него контакт с т в о р ц а м и , з н а к о м и т с п р и н ц и п а м и с о с т а в л е н и я своей огромной к о л л е к ц и и ( с в ы ш е 3.000 с к у л ь п т у р и кар- ' тин). Ц и м м е р е р а не и н т е р е с у е т „искусство", а человек, ! п р и ч и н ы , п о б у ж д а ю щ и е его к т в о р ч е с т в у , место, кото­ рое в ж и з н и т в о р ц а з а н и м а ю т собственные произвед е н и я . Он хочет, ч т о б ы со в р е м е н е м его к о л л е к ц и я | с т а л а д а р с т в е н н ы м м у з е е м с в и д е т е л ь с т в у ю щ и м о твор- • ч е с к и х в о з м о ж н о с т я х ч е л о в е к а , с т а л а своеобразным „ у р о к о м о п т и м и з м а " д л я с т а р и к о в , б о л ь н ы х , обижен­ н ы х судьбой л ю д е й . О Ц и м м е р е р е и его коллекции п и ш е т т а к ж е А. Я ц к о в с к и . Эти и другие статьи касаются в а ж н е й ш и х коллек­ ций, к о т о р ы е в то ж е в р е м я по р я д у п р и ч и н пред­ с т а в л я ю т особый интерес. Р е д а к ц и я п о с т а в и л а себе ц е л ь ю п р е д с т а в и т ь п р и ч и н ы , в силу к о т о р ы х возникли о б с у ж д а е м ы е к о л л е к ц и и , б л и ж е п о з н а к о м и т ь читателя с л и ч н о с т я м и с о б и р а т е л е й и о х а р а к т е р и з о в а т ь проф и л ь их коллекций. �WARUNKI PRENUMERATY Cena prenumeraty rocznej 72 zł Cena prenumeraty półrocznej 36 zł Instytucje p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne, z a k ł a d y pracy, szkoły — m a j ą c e siedzibę w miastach w o j e w ó d z k i c h i powiatowych, m o g ą z a m a w i a ć p r e n u m e r a t ę za p o ś r e d ­ nictwem miejscowych O d d z i a ł ó w i Delegatur RSW „ P r a s a — K s i ą ż k a — R u c h " lub b e z p o ś r e d n i o w Centrali K o l p o r t a ż u RSW „ P r a s a — K s i ą ż k a — R u c h " 00-958 Warsza­ wa, u l . Towarowa 28 konto P K O nr 1-6-100020, w t e r m i n i e do dnia 25 listopada na r o k n a s t ę p n y . Instytucje p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne, z a k ł a d y pracy, szkoły — m a j ą c e siedzibę w miejscowościach, w k t ó r y c h nie ma O d d z i a ł ó w RSW „ P r a s a — K s i ą ż k a — R u c h ' , w i n n y opłacać p r e n u m e r a t ę w terenowo w ł a ś c i w y c h u r z ę d a c h pocztowych. P r e n u m e r a t ę k r a j o w ą dla c z y t e l n i k ó w i n d y w i d u a l n y c h p r z y j m u j ą u r z ę d y pocz­ towe, listonosze i b e z p o ś r e d n i o Centrala K o l p o r t a ż u RSW „ P r a s a — K s i ą ż k a — R u c h " ' 00- 958 Warszawa, u l . Towarowa 28, konto P K O n r 1-6-100020, w terminie do 10 dnia m i e s i ą c a p o p r z e d z a j ą c e g o okres prenumeraty. P r e n u m e r a t ę ze zleceniem w y s y ł k i za g r a n i c ę , k t ó r a jest o 40% droższa od pre­ numeraty krajowej, przyjmuje B i u r o K o l p o r t a ż u W y d a w n i c t w Zagranicznych RSW „ P r a s a — K s i ą ż k a — R u c h " 00-840 Warszawa, u l . Wronia 23, Konto P K O nr 1-6-100024. Sprzedaż numerów bieżących i uprzednich Instytucje p a ń s t w o w e i społeczne, szkoły, z a k ł a d y pracy oraz czytelnicy indy­ w i d u a l n i m o g ą n a b y w a ć t ę p u b l i k a c j ę w k s i ę g a r n i O ś r o d k a Rozpowszechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych P A N . S p r z e d a ż g o t ó w k o w a i w y s y ł k o w a , pojedynczych n u m e r ó w i w k o n t y n u a c j i ; p ł a t n o ś ć g o t ó w k ą , przelewem l u b za zaliczeniem pocztowym. A d r e s : O R P A N 00-901 Warszawa, P a ł a c K u l t u r y i N a u k i , konto P K O nr 1- 6-100312, w k s i ę g a r n i „ O s s o l i n e u m " 50-106 W r o c ł a w , Rynek 8, w G ł ó w n e j K s i ę ­ garni Naukowej 00-068 Warszawa, K r a k o w s k i e P r z e d m i e ś c i e 7, w K s i ę g a r n i N a u ­ kowej 31-118 K r a k ó w , u l . Podwale 6. Prenumeratorzy m i e s z k a j ą c y za g r a n i c ą m o g ą z a m a w i a ć P O L S K Ą S Z T U K Ę L U D O W Ą za p o ś r e d n i c t w e m Centrali H a n d l u Zagranicznego „Ars Polona — Ruch" 00-068 Warszawa, u l . K r a k o w s k i e P r z e d m i e ś c i e 7. Bank H a n d l o w y S.A. Warszawa konto nr 1595-006-000-00710. Indeks 37132/36940 Indeks m i ę d z y n a r o d o w y P L ISSN 0032-3721 Zakład Narodowy imienia Ossolińskich — Wydawnictwo Wrocław, Oddział w Warszawie 1975. Nakład 2.000 egz. Objętość: 20,40 ark. wyd.; 16,00 ark. druk. Papier: powiek. V k l . , 90 gram. A l . Oddano do składania '10.XII.1974 r. Pod­ pisano do druku 31.VII.1974 r. Wydrukowano w sierpniu 1975 r. Cena 36.— zł. Z. G . „Tamka". Zakład nr 2. Zam. 658. B-32. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/47edff3130b44090c9735a86786f0c97.pdf 7a1abd204605a3fede0da643a4269941 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4537 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1962 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4218 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.4 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.4, s. 253-255 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY N. 4 I S PUBLISHED H BY F THE ART O INSTITUTE L OF THE Y E A R BOOK X V I K P O L I S H A C A D E M Y OF A R T SCIENCES 1962 SUMMARY OF A R T I C L E S Ksawery Piwochi — FIFTEENTH ANNIVERSARY O F „POLISH F O L K A R T " On the occasion of the 15th anniversary of „Po•lish Folk A r t " , Professor Piweeki evaluates its w o r k , as the l^-st periodical to collect systematic informa­ t i o n on f o l k art. U t i l i z i n g the results of extensive inventary a n d research w o r k , and very often inspir­ ing this w o r k , the periodical has done much to spread knowledge i n this f i e l d a n d to f i l l i n .the gaps that existed previously. The documentary m a t e r i a l publish­ ed has made i t possible to preserve elements of folk art that are d y i n g out and t h e attention devoted t o contemporary artistic w o r k has played an impor­ t a n t p a r t i n keeping f o l k a r t traditions alive, partioulary by d r a w i n g attention to i n d i v i d u a l i t y . TO- sum up, after 15 years of w o r k „Polish Folk A r t " has succeeded i n collecting material, w i t h o u t w h i c h i t w o u l d be impossible to t h i n k of elaborating any k i n d of monographic or synthetic w o r k s on this subject. Józef Burszta, Zbigniew Jasiewicz — C O L L I S I O N OF C U L T U R E S I N T H E WESTERN A N D N O R T H E R N REGIONS SEEN I N M A T E R I A L S F R O M V I L L A G E S I N KOSZALIN REGION The settlement of population coming f r o m diffe­ r e n t territories i n the Western and Northern Regions brought a collision of m a n y different cultures there. This phenomenon is described i n an article based on m a t e r i a l collected d u r i n g research conducted i n several villages of Koszalin D i s t r i c t i n the years I960—62. The authors analyse 'this collision of diffe­ rent cultures, t a k i n g the village of Iświęcin as an example. I n Iwięcin large groups of people from, the L u b l i n region and f r o m the district of Wieluń (Łódź Voivodship) predominate among the settlers w h o came there i n ,1945. The differences between these t w o groups were p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable i n a g r i ­ culture. Those w h o had come f r o m the L u b l i n region and the territories inhabited b y the Łemkowie largely adapted themselves to the more m o d e m methods of f a r m i n g applied i n the locality and: brought there by the settlers f r o m Wieluń. B u t there was not an exhange i n every f i e l d of f a r m i n g ; for instance, bee keeping remained the domain of the people f r o m the L u b l i n region and was not taken up b y those f r o m Wieluń. On t h e other hand, big changes could be observed i n the diet of a l l groups, w h o exchanged recipes for different dishes. Under the influence of the settlers f r o m Wieluń, the women f r o m the L u b l i n region have changed their way of washing. They have given u p the o l d method of beating the clothes b y a Stream or lake i n favour of the wash'tub, and of late, electric washing m a c h i ­ nes are being used too. As regards rites, the repre­ sentatives of the various groups accepted the p r o h i ­ bitions (that w e r e not contradictory, w h i l e contradic­ tory ones l e d bo certain i m p l i c a t i o n s . Magic p r a c t i ­ ces d i d not disappear as a result of the collision of cultures and even increased i n .the f i r s t period. The different groups have taken over these practices f r o m each Other. There are s t i l l some differences i n marriage and funeral rites, b u t here too, both the Wieluń and L u b l i n rites have been observed together. There are also differences i n the w a y of celebrating Christmas Eve and i n carol singing cus­ toms. The most superstitions were brought .with them b y the people f r o m Wieluń, but other groups of population are also beginning t o a v a i l themselves of the services of „incantations". A s regards the various dialects, the L u b l i n settlers have gained the upper h a n d over the people f r o m Wieluń, whose dialect was rather Germanized', although differences i n certain terms have been m a i n t a i n e d i n the various groups. Settling i n n e w conditions, contact w i t h different cultures , t h e n e w c u l t u r a l influences through the medium of the radio, cinema, etc., and closer contacts w i t h urban l i f e have changed the tastes and aesthetic outlook of the settlers. This is evident I n t h e i r attitude towards 'the folk a r t they found i n the locality they came to a n d t o their o w n t r a d i t i o n a l f o l k art. As regards buildings, the settlers p a i d more attention t o considerations of u t i l i t y than to beauty. (The artistic values of the 18th and 19 t h century cottages (fig. 7) were not f u l l y appreciated. No attempts were made to preserve the former appea­ rance of the cottages w i t h t h e i r black tarred beams; they have been whitewashed a l l over to look l i k e the cottages the settlers have been used to (fig. 1, 6), the materials necessary f o r this even h a v i n g been brought f r o m their n a t i v e parts. As regards the churches i n their n e w locality, the Gothic church in Iwięcin, resembling the churches i n t h e i r former place of residence, enjoys general approval. 1 A m o n g .the local f u r n i t u r e , a m u c h higher value is placed on t h e „new" pieces of furniture, e. g. f r o m the t h i r t i e s and forties. 'Furniture of historical value is used, b u t there is a tendency to keep this f u r n i ­ ture i n the k i t c h e n or corridor and n o t i n the l i v i n g rooms. People w i l l i n g l y h a n d ithem over to museums. The decoration of this f u r n i t u r e (fig. 10, 11) has h a d no influence at a l l on local a r t . O l d chests, and coffers have been left w h e r e they were i n the attiCs or i n .the corridors, a n d are used for storing f l o u r or g r a i n . The settlers also brought t h e i r o w n chests w i t h them (fig. 18, (19). The interiors of the houses the settlers moved into, furnished w i t h quite modern furniture, have mostly been left just as they were (fig. 20), and i n cases where the furnishings were inferior, they have sometimes been replaced by f u r ­ niture of the u r b a n type. Wallpapers have been re^ placed by whitewashed walls, sometimes decorated w i t h stencilled flowers or patterns p u t on w i t h a roller. Of late, 'this w o r k has been dane b y p r o ­ fessional painters, w h o have introduced n e w paints and distempers and new kinds of ornamentation, e. g. broad bands at the top of the w a l l under .the ceiling. The floors are painted, covered w i t h carpets o r rugs, either 'bought i n the t o w n or brought w i t h them b y the settlers f r o m their native villages. The ornamentation of interiors depends on the i n d i v i d u a l taste of householder. Women coming f r o m regions w i t h strong traditions as regards i n t e r i o r decoration, have brought these tradiions w i t h them t o their new homes, although 'the decorations have undergrone certain changes. For instance, w o m e n f r o m the V i l n o region s t i l l decorate windows w i t h lambrequins according t o their o l d custom, though they are rarely used for doors. There has also been a change i n the t r a d i t i o n a l w a y of m a k i n g beds using the bed-spreads the settlers brought w i t h them; a n d w i t h a p i l e of cushions aranged on top (fig. 22). The settlers w h o h a d been accustomed to enhancing their rooms, w i t h r o w s of pictures h u n g up h i g h under the ceiling (e. g. f r o m -the Kielce region a n d the parts inhabited b y the Łemkowie) only brought a few of t h e m to their new homes and have hung them up i n places of honour. Women w h o d i d not b r i n g any pictures 253 T �witlh t h e m have (substituted them b y sticking p i c t u r e postcards on t h e w a l l s or h u n g i n g up the German o i l prints t h e y f o u n d on t h e spot, w i t h t h e i r virgins-, stags a n d swans, illustrations c u t o u t of weeklies a n d 'coloured photographs of religious subjects h u n g over j o i n e d t w i n beds. Wedding photographs are also h u n g on the walls. So-<;alled „makatki" (a sort of i m i t a t i o n tapestry), painted on paper o r l i n e n a n d showing stags a n d various scenes (fig. 25—28) are an ever more frequent f o r m of decoration, as are paintings of religious subjects (fig. 23, 24), usually painted b y some self-taught artist i n a t o w n o r s m a l l t o w n a n d d i s t r i b u t e d b y „agents" to the s u r r o u n d i n g d i ­ stricts — sometimes to quite distant localities. For instance, some paintings i n Koszalin are supplied by a local „artist" a n d some have come a l l the w a y f r o m L u b l i n . O n l y one case of the m o t i f s on these paintings h a v i n g been treated i n the f o l k style (fig 32) was noted. A popular w a l l decoration are embroide­ r e d pictures bought in shops. T h e artificial flowers used to decorate interioils are also u s u a l l y purchased i n t h e m a r k e t square i n Koszalin. O n l y sometimes are they made b y t h e settlers f r o m the Rzeszów a n d Kielce Voivodships, p a r t i c u l a r l y the Łemkowie; 'con­ t i n u i n g their f a m i l y traditions. These flowers are used either to decorate religious pictures {fig. 21), o r a „shrine corner" (fig. 39), or they are put i n f l o w e r glasses. Decorations hanging f r o m the ceiling are n o l o n ­ ger met w i t h . B u t i n the Koszalin region, there is a custom to place objects decoratively on f u r n i t u r e : birds, porcelain, figures of baroque ladies, soldiers, peasants, plaster angels, colourful boxes, etc. They are usually objects left b y t h e Germans, although some of them have bean purchased i n towns. There is n o t m u c h difference between the various villages i n the w a y of decorating homes. Depending on t h e i n d i v i d u a l taste of the housewife, the interiors either abound i n ornaments (fig. 38), o r are very modestly decorated (fig. 39). A m o n g t h e artistic objects o w n e d b y the settlers, f o l k a r t products f r o m .the region they have come f r o m are very rare. The n e w conditions were not conducive to the r e v i v a l a n d continuation of artistic traditions. The equipment they found i n t h e houses they moved i n t o and the changes t a k i n g place i n the village of today i n t r o ­ duced elements of u r b a n culture, and the confron­ t a t i o n of various styles a n d a r t i s t i c tastes has under­ m i n e d t h e importance of .their o w n traditions. A s a result, the traditions of a r t i s t i c weaving, w o o d c a r v i n g a n d metal w o r k have n o t been carried o n i n any of the groups examined. Some decorative r i t u a l accessories, f o r instance, „pisanki" (painted Easter eggs), afterwards used for decorating rooms or as playthings for children, a n d „palms" (fig. 43), are s t i l l made. To s u m u p : I . The collision o f c u l ­ tures is a l o n g process, f i r s t affecting the implements used, 'the methods of housekeeping, dress and diet, a n d later influencing the customary forms accom­ p a n y i n g rites. 2. As a result of various cultures coming i n t o contact w i t h each other, some elements are accepted a n d others rejected, w h i l e quite a n u m ­ ber of c u l t u r a l traditions die out. The decisive factor aire u t i l i t y considerations. 3. The process of the collision of cultures i n the villages under review, (which, was f o u n d to ;be i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h the process of the formation of a u n i f o r m r u r a l community, was the starting p o i n t f o r integration processes. 4. A n indifferent attitude to the f o l k a r t of the region the settlers have come t o is a general t h i n g . O n l y i n some fields a n d i n some groups o f population are the artistic traditions f r o m t h e i r native parts continued. 1 Antoni SledziewsU — P A P E R OUTS F R O M PO­ WIŚLE, O T W O C K AIN1D G A R W O L I N So far, o u r knowledge of the so-called G a r w o l i n '(Warsaw Voivodship) paper cuts has been based 254 on materials f r o m the 'beginning of the 20th century to be f o u n d i n the collections of t h e Society of Po­ lish A p p l i e d A r t i n Cracow. Recent research i n this region has brought some n e w materials' to light, d i f f e r i n g f r o m those of the Cracow collections'. D r a ­ w i n g attention to these differences, the author distinguishes t w o groups of paper cuts i n the region under review. One group, represented i n the Cracow collections, comes f r o m the localities of Ruda a n d Podleź {fig. 1, 2, 4) w h e r e n o special paper c u t t r a d i ­ tions have been recorded; these are m u l t i coloured paper cuts pasted onto a background, Which w e r e probably inspired b y the local intelligentsia. The second group —• discovered d u r i n g the recent rese­ arch — represents the northern part of the region under review, Which has fine, long traditions i n this l i n e of a r t . These paper cuts take the characteristic forms of: a) h u m a n silhouettes, called „dolls'" (fig. 27—30, 32—34, 36). b) silhouettes of birds, p a r t i c u l a r l y „cocks" (fig. 8, 10—14). c) stylized trees, called „rózgi" (fig. 25, 26). d) r o u n d stars (fig. 16—18) or square stars (fig. 15, •19—21). Other forms are d e r i v e d f r o m these: one- or t w o level frieses w i t h „coks" or „dolls". (fig. 9, 31, 35), compositions combining „dolls" and „cocks" (fig. 31, 32), „cocks" w i t h „rózgi" (fig. 24), etc. Contrary to 'the Cracow collections these paper cuts are always i n one colour, a n d ornamented w i t h the charactestic r h o m b o i d tracery i n the f o r m of „ branches" w i t h leaves (fig. 27, 34, 37), „arrows" {fig. 12, 17) o r a b a n d Of eyelets. A l l these forms a n d features distinguishing t h e paper cuts u n d e r r e v i e w are .characteristic not o n l y of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r area, b u t of f a l l paper cuts of the so called Warsaw region type. 1 Anatoliusz Czerepiński — W I N C E N T Y 'FOLK SCULPTOR MURAWICK'I, The article gives i n f o r m a t i o n about a so far u n k n o w n f o l k sculptor. M u r a w i c k i , b o r n i n 1900 i n Mińsk Mazowiecki, l i v e d near V i l n o for a certain period, a n d i n 1945 settled i n Czaplinek i n t h e We­ stern Regions. Hadutiga and Anatoliusz № POMIANÓW Czerepińscy — F O L K P U L P I T The article describes a p u l p i t {from the village of Pomianów, Biłgoraj district, Koszalin Voivodship) d a t i n g back to the second half of the 19th century. Jacek Olędzki — NEW YEAR'S C A K E S FROM K U R P I E REGION THE T h e competition for New Year's r i t u a l cakes showed h o w strong 'this o l d t r a d i t i o n s t i l l is i n .the K u r p i e region, f r o m Which about 600 specimens were entered. A m o n g the subjects of t h e specimens sent i n for .the competition, the t r a d i t i o n a l domestic a n i ­ m a l shapes and „nowe l a t k a " (fig. 1—5, 9) were i n the m a j o r i t y . B u t the competition brought n e w subjects too, such as a m a r k s m a n w i t h a b o w a n d a r r o w o r a gun, a .peasant at w o r k , a c h i l d i n the cradle, etc (fig 6, в, 110, 11, 14, 15, t i t l e page), h a v i n g n o t h i n g i n common w i t h the o l d magic function of these r i t u a l cakes. The great m a j o r i t y of specimens w e r e m a r k e d for •the characteristic simplification of f o r m to suit the .•material >used. B u t there w e r e also entries that, de­ p a r t i n g f r o m the traditional simplifications, h a d care­ f u l l y modelled heads, arms a n d legs, etc. (fig. 4, 12, 1'3, 16), special s m a l l rods being used to strengthen 'the dough. The n e w t r e n d towards n a t u r a l i s m was expressed i n p a i n t i n g the features of the face or details of dress on the surface of the finished cake, a practice n o t met w i t h so far. T h e artistic level of a l l the specimens sent i n was very high. �П О Л Ь С К О Е Н А Р О Д Н О Е И С К У С С Т В О КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК № 4 ГОД ИЗДАНИЯ X V I РЕЗЮМЕ К с а в е р ы П и в о ц к и й — „ПОЛЬСКОМУ РОДНОМУ И С К У С С Т В У " — П Я Т Н А Д Ц А Т Ь НА­ ЛЕТ По поводу пятнадцатилетней годовщины „Поль­ ского Народного Искусства" профессор Пивоцкий оценивает его деятельность, как первого журнала, который систематически накапливал знания о на­ родном изобразительном искусстве. Используя ре­ зультаты огромных инвентаризационных и иссле­ довательских работ, а неоднократно инспирируя их, журнал в немалой степени причинился к рас­ ширению знаний в этой области и заполнению имеющихся раньше пробелов. Подводя итог видно, что после пятнадцатилетней работы журнал „Поль­ ское Народное Искусство" накопил материалы, без которых немыслимы становятся монографические или синтетические работы в этой области. Ю з е ф Б у р ш т а , З б и г н е в Я с е в и ч — СТОЛК­ НОВЕНИЕ К У Л Ь Т У Р Н А ТЕРРИТОРИИ ЗАПАД­ Н Ы Х И СЕВЕРНЫХ ЗЕМЕЛЬ В ОСВЕЩЕНИИ МАТЕРИАЛОВ, СОБРАННЫХ В К О Ш А Л И Н С К И Х ДЕРЕВНЯХ. Заселение Западных и Северных Земель насе­ лением, происходвшим из различных территорий, стало причиной столкновения различных культур. Это явление разработано в статье на основе ма­ териалов, изъятных из исследований, проводимых в нескольких деревнях Кошалинского повята в 1960—62 г. Процесс столкновения различных культур авторы анализируют на примере деревни Ивенцин, где среди поселенцев находились преи­ мущественно большие национальные группы, при­ бывшие в 1945 году из Люблинского воеводства и из повята Велюнь (Лодзинское воеводство). Прежде всего заметна разница у этих групп в сель­ ском хозяйстве, где прибывшие из Люблинской земли и земли Лемков в значительной степени приспособились к более современной сельскохозяй­ ственной культуре — той, которую застали на месте, а также завезённой поселенцами из Велюня. Обмен культурами наступал в каждой отрасли. Пчеловодство, например, осталось приемущественно у Люблинян и не было присвоено поселенцами из Велюня. Зато в способе питания наступили значи­ тельные перемены (во всех группах), которые взаимствовали чужие блюда и способ их приготов­ ления. Под влиянием поселенцев из Велюня, жен­ щины из Люблинской земли сменили способ стир­ ки. Похопывание вальками у ручья или пруда сменила стирка в лоханке, а сейчас появились электрические стиральные машины. Представители разных групп присвоили себе непротиворечные запреты в обрядах, однако запреты противоречные привели к некоторым осложнениям. Маги­ ческие обряды в результате столкновения культур не замерли, а в начальном периоде разрослись, взаимно присвоенные группами. Некоторые раз­ личия заметны в сохранившихся свадебных и похороных обрядах, и потому обряды из Велюня и Люблина проводились совместно. Сохранились также различия в праздновании Сочельника и в способе колядования. Предрассудки принесло с со­ бой, главным образом, население, прибывшее из Велюнской земли, но „заговариванием" начали пользоваться и другие группы населения. В столкновении разных диалектов преимущества добился диалект поселенцев из Люблинской земли, который вытеснил диалект поселенцев из Велюня, носивший черты немецкого влияния. Сохранялась, однако, разница в некоторых определениях в от­ 1962 дельных группах. Поселение в новых условиях, соприкосновение с другими культурами, с образ­ цами культуры, действующими посредством радио, кино и т.п., прочное общение с городской жизнью преобразовало, между прочим, вкус и эстетические взгляды поселенцев. Это заметно в отношении к из­ делиям народного искусства, оставшегося на этой территории, а также к собственной традиции на­ родного искусства. В оценке местного строительства сыграли роль, скорее всего, утилитарные взгляды, а не эстетические. Недооценены были художествен­ ные достоинства изб с X V I I I и X I X веков (рис. 7). Не удержался давний вид домов, а также стен с чёрными просмоленными столбами. Эти столбы белили в соответствии с прежними привычками (рис. 1, 6), завозя нужное сырьё даже из родных местностей. С уже существующих костёлов добился всеобщего признания готический костёл в Ивенциме, напоминающий костёлы, находящиеся в преж­ них местах проживания. Среди находящейся здесь мебели гораздо высшую оценку получила „новая" мебель, т.е. с 30-тых и 40-вых годов. Ценные пред­ меты домашнего обихода употреблялись (рис. 15), но старались не держать их в комнате, а только на кухне или в коридорах. Охотно отдают их в музеи. Декорация этих предметов (рис. 10, 11) не оказала никакого влияния на местное творчество. Старые сундуки и ларцы оставили на прежних местах (на чердаках или в сенях), используя их для сохранения муки или зерна. Поселенцы тоже привезли свои сундуки (рис. 18, 19). Умеющееся внутреннее убранство помещений, оборудованное умеренно современной мебелью, было принято, в общем, без изменений (рис. 20), а в тех случаях, когда получали худшее внутреннее убранство, за­ меняли его, со временем, на мебель городского типа. Обои заменили побелкой стен, иногда украшая их цветами, крашеными при помощи шаблона или валика. В последнее время эту работу выполняют профессиональные маляри, которые ввели новые краски и новые украшения (например: широкая кайма под потолком). Полы крашены, покрыты половиками, купленными в городе, или привезен­ ными поселенцами из родных деревень. Внутрен­ ние украшения зависят от индивидуального вкуса жителей. Женщины, происходившие из районов, где живы традиции декорирования внутреннего убранства, перенесли этот обычай на новое место, однако декорация подверглась изменениям. На­ пример, женщины из района Вильно, согласно давним обычаям, украшают окна ламбрекенами, зато двери уже очень редко, Изменился способ традиционного застилания кровати привезенным покрывалом с грудой подушек, уложенных на­ верху (рис. 22). Поселенки, которые в своих сто­ ронах (Келецке, Лемковске) украшали избу рядами картин, повешенных у самого потолка, на новое место привезли, по крайней мере, несколько картин и повесили их на почётном месте. Женщины, ко­ торые таких картин не привезли с собой, заменили их, наклеивая на стенах видовые открытки или имеющиеся здесь немецкие олеграфии с девами, оленями, лебедями, иллюстрации, вырезанные из журналов, а позднее разукрашенные фотографии на религиозные темы, завешенные над совместными кроватями. На стенах развешивают также свадеб­ ные фотографии. Всё чаще встречаем в настоящее время т.н. „макатки" — картины на бумаге или полотне, изображающие оленей и разные сцены (рис. 25—28), а также картины религиозного содержа­ ния (рис. 23, 24), выполненные, преимущественно, 255 �доморощенным „творцом" в городе или городке, откуда „агенты" развозят их в окрестности, иногда добираясь к отдалённым местностям. Например, картины в Кошалине созданы частично местным „артистом", а частично завезены из Люблина. От­ мечен только один случай преобразования мотивов этих картин на народные (рис. 35). Популярным украшением стен являются вышитые „макатки" (гобеленчики). Искуственные цветы, украшающие помещение внутри, покупают, преимущественно, на базаре в Кошалине. Иногда выделывают их по­ селенки из Жешовского, Келецкого, особенно семьи Лемков, продолжая семейные традиции. Этими цве­ тами украшают святые иконы (рис. 21), или „свя­ той угол" (рис. 39), или расставляют их в вазах. Уже не встречаются украшения, свешивающиеся с потолка. Зато выступают в Кошалинском вое­ водстве декоративные предметы, расставленные на мебели: фигурки птиц, фарфоровые фигурки жен­ щин в стиле барокко, фигурки солдат, крестьян, ангелов из гипса, пёстрые коробки и т.п. Эти пред­ меты, преимущественно, остались после ухода нем­ цев, а частично закуплены в городе. Не замечаем больших различий, возникающих между деревнями, в украшивании квартир. Одна­ ко, в зависимости от индивидуальной склонности хозяйки, во внутреннем убранстве изобилует мно­ жество украшений (рис. 38), или украшение очень скромное (рис. 39). Среди имеющихся у поселенцов художественных предметов редко можно встретить предметы народного искусства с того района, от­ куда прибыли поселенцы. Новые условия не со­ действовали обновлению и продолжению художест­ венной традиции. Имеющееся оборудование и пе­ ремены, происходящие в современной деревне, по­ пуляризовали достижения городской культуры, а сопоставление разных стилей и художественных склонностей нарушило значение собственной тра­ диции. В результате, в никакой из рассматривае­ мых групп не возродились традиции художествен­ ного ткачества, прикладного искусства по дереву или металлу. В дальнейшем делают некоторые украшенные обрядовые аксессуары, например „пи­ санки" (которые потом употребляют для украшения комнаты или отдают детям поиграться, „пальмы", (рис. 43). Обобщая: 1. Столкновение культур является продолжитель­ ным процессом, охватывающим первоначально инструменты, способы хозяйствования, одежду, питание, а дальше влияет на бытовые формы, сопровождающие обряды. 2. В результате соприкосновения культурных ком­ плексов происходит присваивание одних эле­ ментов, а уход других, при одновременном за­ мирании ряда традиционных культурных со­ держаний. Решающую роль играют в этом про­ цессе утилитарные мотивы. 3. Процесс столкновения культур в рассматривае­ мых деревнях оказался строго связан с про­ цессом формирования однородной деревенской общественности и стал исходной точкой для ин­ теграционного процесса. 4. Повсеместно господствует равнодушное отно­ шение к местному народному искусству. Только в некоторых отраслях и группах населения про­ должено традиционное художественное твор­ чество из родных сторон. Антоний Следзевский — ВЫРЕЗКА ИЗ БУМАГИ В ОТВОЦКО-ГАРВОЛИНСКОМ ПОВИСЛЕ До сих пор знания о вырезке из бумаги, так называемой гарволинской (Варшавское воеводство) основывали на материалах, собранных в начале X X в. и находящихся в коллекции Общества „Польское Прикладное Искусство" в Кракове. Во время последних исследований был обнаружен новый материал, отличавшийся от краковских кол­ лекций. Обращая внимание на это отличие, автор статьи, на рассматриваемой территории, выделяет две группы вырезок. Одна группа, представленная в краковских коллекция, собрана в местности Руда, Подленж (рис. 1,2,4), где не обнаруживаем живой традиции по производству вырезок, а сама вы­ резка представлена в форме многоцветной наклей­ ки, возникнувшей повидимому, благодаря инспи­ рации местной интеллигенции. Вторая группа, об­ наруженная во время последних территориальных исследований, представляет северную часть рас­ сматриваемой территории, имеющей долговремен­ ную, живую традицию в этой отрасли искусства. Здесь вырезка имеет характерную форму: а) силуэтов людей, („куклы") — рис. 27—30, 32— 34, 36, б) силуэтов птиц, особенно „петушков" (рис. 8, 10— 14), в) стилизованных деревец („розги") — рис. 25,26, г) круглых звёзд (рис. 16—18), или квадратных (рис. 15, 19—21). С этих основных форм возникают производные формы: рюши с одним или двумя уровнями с „пе­ тушком", или „кукол" (рис. 9, 31, 35), композиции, объединяющие „кукол" и „петушков" (рис. 31, 32), петушки с „деревцами" (рис. 24) и т.п. В противо­ положность краковским коллекциям, это всегда одноцветные вырезки, украшеные характерным ромбообразным ажуром, в виде „ветки" с листвой (рис. 27, 34, 37), „стрелки" (рис. 12, 17) или в форме пояса окошек. Все эти формы и черты, выделяю­ щие рассматриваемую вырезку, свойственны не только на этой территории, но и всем вырезкам, так называемого подваршавского типа вырезки. Анатолий Черепинский — ВИНЦЕНТЫ М У Р А В Е Ц К И Й — НАРОДНЫЙ С К У Л Ь П Т О Р В статье говорится о неизвестном по сегодняш­ ний день народном скульпторе. Муравецкий ро­ дился в 1900 году в Минске Мазовецком, некоторое время проживал вблизи г. Вильно, а в 1945 году поселился в Чаплинке, на Западных Землях Поль­ ши. Я д в и г а и А н а т о л и й Ч е р е п и н с к и е — НА­ РОДНЫЙ АМВОН ИЗ ПОМЯНОВА (ВОЕВОДСТВО КОШАЛИНСКОЕ) В статье дано описание амвона (из деревни Помянув, повят Билгорай, воеводство Кошалин) со второй половины X I X в. Я ц е к О л е н д з к и й — К О Н К У Р С НОВОГОДНИХ Х Л Е Б Н Ы Х ИЗДЕЛИЙ К У Р П Е В Конкурс на новогодние обрядовые хлебные из­ делия доказал огромную живучесть этой старой традиции в районе Курпев, откуда было пред­ ставлено на конкурс около 600 объектов. Тема представленных работ — преимущественно тради­ ционные изображения животноводческих зверей и „новэ лятка" (новые годки) (рис. 1—5, 9). Благо­ даря конкурсу появились новые темы, не имеющие уже ничего общего с давней магической функцией обрядовых хлебных изделий, например изобра­ жение стрелка с луком или ружьём, крестьянина во время хозяйственных занятий, ребёнка в колы­ бели и др. (рис. 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15 и заглавный лист). Огромное большинство работ характеризует тра­ диционно упрощенная форма, согласно со свой­ ствами сырья. Однако, на конкурсе нашлись ра­ боты, которые отбегают от традиционных упро­ щений, отчётливей моделируют форму головы, ко­ нечностей и др. (рис. 4, 12, 13, 15), употребляя для упрочения теста специальные палочки. Новое стрем­ ление отобразить более правильный вид объекта нашло выражение в неупотребляемом до сих пор раскрашивании деталей лица или одежды (на поверхности готовой выпечки). Художественный уровень работ оказался очень высоким. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/1b6d61c2b0113b3d10746932c1986ea9.pdf 6cf02476eea7753c70530a25843894c4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4718 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4380 Title A name given to the resource Summary of articles/ ummary oPolska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1964 t.18 z.2; s.101-103 Language A language of the resource ang. ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L I S H F Franciszek Pabich — „THE MADONNA I N P O M E ­ RANIAN WATER THREAD PAPER" The author publishes some particularly valuable and so far unknown material concerning water thread paper in Pomerania. These materials are the result of ten years of toilsome work, studying both old notarial acts, mortgages, church and municipal records and municipal archives not studied from this point of view so far. The author's research also included the study of old price lists, calendars and chronicles, private etters and agreements and old prints and documents in the Voivodship State Archi­ ves. This research has today enabled the author not only to publish an extremely rich, unknown and interesting set of copies of the water thread papers, themselves, but also a lot of information of particular importance, for it has made it possible to establish the existence of 96 paper mills in Pomerania, among them, the oldest one in Gdańsk, dating back to 1420, and to identify the names of 200 paper makers, which in turn showed a large number of Poles among the founders and owners of the Pomeranian paper mills, and also the fact that the apprentices executing these water threads were largely recruited from the Polish element. And this enables the author to clas­ sify their work as Polish folk art. Water thread paper first made its appearance in Pomerania in the middle of the 15th century, and the earliest examples date back to 1454. Among the subjects specific to this area, the dominating one is the Madonna and Child. The set of illustrations accompanying the article show the rich variety of presentations of the subject, from very subtle ones to fundamentally different compositional types. The set of copies is furnished with an information table giving their origin, the place where they are kept, their dimensions and a list of various kinds of water thread papers, according to the paper mills. Jerzy Czajkowski — W E A V E R S C O T T A G E S I N T H E L O C A L I T Y OF KROSNO Research carried out on the folk architecture of Pogórze (Rzeszów region) has shown that in a few villages in the locality of Krosno there is a definite inter-dependence betwen the craft of weaving practiced there and the interior layout of the weavers'cottages. The examples that have been preserved, some of them dating back 100 and in some cases 200 years, justify the statement that a well developed layout plan is typical in the weavers' cottages. The author distinguishes three versions of the layout plan: 1) cottage with corridor in centre and rooms on both sides, 2) with lobby running halfway along one side with rooms opening out of it, residential plan, 3) with the same layout, work­ shop plan. The author discusses various versions of interior layout within the framework of these plans, depict­ ing them with the plates that have been included (the Palish abbreviations should be understood as follows: Wr — workshop, I — room, K o — chamber, S — lobby, St — stable, B — quadrangle, I zim — cool room). The simplest is the cottage built according to the layout of the lobby running halfway along one side with the rooms opening out of it, workshop plan. (Plate 1/3), an older type dating back to 1809 is shown in Plate 1/2, and one of 1860 in Plate 1/5, and another version of it is shown in Plate I I / 5 . 102 O L K A R T The cottage built acording to the first layout where the corridor is in the centre and the rooms on both sides, comes in two versions: the first, very common in the locality under review, (Plate 1/4, 6, 7, 8, 11/1, 3) and the other, showing a cottage dating back to 1840 (Plate II/4), which is not met with so often in the villages in question. The weavers'icottages were built of fir wood, with a hipped thatched roof. A characteristic feature of these cottages is that the ceiling is much higher in the living rooms than in the workshops. This is connected with the fact that the cottages were without chimneys and also with so-called „Polenie" for drying wood and as shelf running round the walls just below the ceiling (fig. 2). The Korczyńska weavers'cottages differ from those in the neighbouring villages by the number of windows, which can be explained by the need for proper lighting in the room used as the weavers' workshop. This also arises from the fact that the layout locates the front of the cottage facing south. In the cottages discussed here, the second room is called the „workshop" despite the fact that it is a very long time since the workshop was located in the home. The term „workshop" is applied very widely, even i n villages where weaving was not done. The appearance of a weaving centre in the villages under review and, in consequence, the building of weavers'cottages, is in the author's opinion connect­ ed with the arrival of a group of German settlers there in the 16th century. These settlers had a good knowledge of the craft of weaving. But they soon became polonized and did not introduce any foreign elements into the building of weavers'cottages. For the original type of cottage most certainly only had one living room and the expansion of the interior was linked with the process of development. Buildings similar to those already described are also to be found in the region inhabited by the Ł e m ­ kowie and occur sporadically in the Sanok and Brzo­ zów districts. Anna Damrosz — A R T I S T I C F O L K PORZĄDZIE ( P U S Z C Z A BIAŁA) WEAVING IN This article is based on research carried out in the locality of Puszcza Biała (White Forest) in the Kurpie Region and embraces materials collected dur­ ing the last 70 years. The basic part of the material was collected in the village of Porządzie, which is one of the most important weaving centres of the Biała Puszcza area. The inadequate income brought in by the small farms and the existing possibilities of cultivating flax were essential factors influencing the develop­ ment of weaving. Several techniques are found in the fabrics made in Porządzie, each of which contri­ butes its own specific artistic effects: 1 linen weave, done on two-heddle looms, used above all for linen and dress fabrics, and also in making two-warp carpets; 2) the cotton rep weave, where the warp is almost invisible, used for making rugs, skirts, frocks and Sunday aprons; 3) twill weave, made on four-heddle looms, where the weft is almost invi­ sible; this weave is used in making dress fabrics and linen for towels and sheets; 4) a very complex technique used in making rugs, done on four or six-heddle looms. In the Puszcza Biała area, there are several characteristic types of fabrics which are outstanding for their specific arrangement of colours and orna­ mentation. They are, above all, bedspreads, striped �Kurpie rugs, the so-called „buronki", mats, and car­ pets. A s regards clothing fabrics, the only ones that are made here today are aprons worn on weekdays. Each of the kinds of fabrics has its awn exclusive pattern. The fabrics belonging to one type only differ in the colour composition and not the pattern. I n all the fabrics made i n this locality, the following com­ binations of colours are dominant: green and red and green and pinlk. A s a rule ,the patterns are sym­ metric, with a strictly defined rhythm. I n the ones known as „buronki", the background is a red and green or green and pink check pattern and the bor­ der is of multi-coloured stripes, the centre of the fabric is filled with so-called „kwiaty z pazurkiem" (flowers with a claw) on a pink, red or green back­ ground and they are edged with a border of geo­ metrical pattern. I n the mats, the background is i n one colour and the ornamental motif in another. In dress fabrics, known as Jkieoki" {fig. 2, 5), the pattern is made up of broad green stripes, between Which there are narrower stripes i n three colours and some wider ones i n red. I n the aprons worn on weekdays, the fabric is usually of a dark colour with narrow stripes of a light colour. I n the oldest Kurpie rugs, the whole surface of the fabric is covered with stripes of the same width. There are two basic ornamental motifs in the fabrics produced in the locality under review: the older type (check pattern as in the „buronki") and the plant motif („kwiaty z pazurkiem" on the carpets). The authoress stresses the importance of the material used in attaining colour effects and discusses the magic rites once practiced in cultivating flax and weaving the fabrics. The tests applied by the authoress during her research in the locality under review (showing n O J l b C K O E naSwx — „MAftOHHA B nOMOPCKOÏÏ <ï>MJIMrPAHH" A B T O P n y S j i M K y e T HCKJiioHHTejibHO u e H H b i e u H e MCCJieflOBaHHŁie pp CMX n o p M a T e p w a n b i , K a c a r o i u w e c H BOflHHblX 3 H 3 K 0 B H a H O M O p b e . M a T e p w a j I b l 3TM H B J I H lOTca p e 3 y j i b T a T O M 10 JieT KponowniBoro H3yneHna C T a p w x HOTapwajifeHMX, MnoTeHHbix M ropoflCKMx K O C T e f l b H b r X aKTOB, K 3 K M H e M C C J i e f l O B a H H M X C 3T0IÏ T O H K K 3peHMH CeJIbCKHX a p X H B O B H a TeppMTOpMM I I o MopbH. K p o M e T o r o aBTop HccjieflOBaji CTapwHHbie iieHHMKM, KajieHflapM, XPOHMKM, nacTHbie nwcbMa M floroBopbi, a TaKsce CTaponenaTHbie MaTepwajibi ii flOKyMeHTbi, xpaHHurwecH B B o e B O f l C K O M Tocyflap- CTBeHHOM ApxuBe. ocHose npoBefleHHbrx MccneflOBaHHM aBTop C T a T b H onyójiHKOBajT MCKjiioHKTejibHO G o r a T o e u MHTepecHoe c o ó p a H M e Hen3BecTHbix # o eux n o p p n c y i r - Ha KOB rpHJiKrpaHOB, a TaKjKe M3 K O T o p b i x Józef Przyborowski — W A W R Z Y N I E C M A K U C H , CARVER OF HOLY FIGURES FROM MIKLUSZOW I C E (KROSNO D I S T R I C T ) Makuch is rather a folk carver of the past cen­ tury, for he died in 1914, at the age of 70. I n folk carving, his work is a unique phenomenon for, as a carpenter, he attained a perfection of carving tech­ nique which enabled him to achieve a precision in his carving that is seldom met with in autogenous art. H A P O f l H O E *paHUMiueK HHCpopMaiTHH, coloured patterns of fabrics modified invarious ways for evaluation) have proved that the most general criteria in evaluating them were economic and tech­ nical. This was particularly apparent in the evalua­ tion of colour and ornamentation effects. I f artistic criteria were applied at all they were more an ex­ pression of the local tradition than of individual tastes. Traditional and regional habits as regards composition and choice of colours were found to be very strongly rooted. But i n 9pite of the pressure of tradition, there are signs of a gradual change in the development of weaving in the Kurpie region, and these changes can be seen both in the ornamental motifs used and i n the ohoice of colours, and also in the kind of fabrics produced. The ohanges that can be observed i n the patterns are largely due to the changes taking place in the techniques used. The traditional folk weaves of the Biała Puszcza area are gradually disappearing and giving way to factory produced fabrics. On the other hand, a new craft is developing, namely, the production of knitwear, which does not lend itself to the adaptation of the traditional patterns. p a s oneHb cjie^yeT, BascHbix HTO n a r t o M o p b e cymecTBOBaJio 96 oyinaJKHbix npeflnpiiHTMM, npnieM cTapeiîniee H 3 HHX B T a a H b C K e paóoTajio c 1420 r. 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B T e M a T m c e 3Toro p a ń o H a npeo6jiaflaioT x a p a K T e p H b i e M3o6pameHHa H C K Y C C T B O Ma«OHHbi c flHTaTew. npmiosceHHaa 3THX H3o6pajKeHHM CBMfleTejibCTByeT o MHororpaHHOcra T B o p H e c K n x p e u i e H M ń , H a H H H a a c o n e H b TOHKMX, e j i e y j i O B H M b i x fleT a j i e i i BnjioTb flo coBepuieHHO npoTMBonoJiojKHbix K O M n O 3 i m , H 0 H H b I X TMnOB. K pHcyHKaM npwJioaieHa Taójiniia, n o a c H a i o m a a MX nponcxojKfleHne, MecTo xpaHeHMH u pa3Mepbi, a TBKJKe nepeneHb cpMJinrpaHOB OTflejibHŁix 6yMajKHbix npeflnpMaTMM. K HacToameił EJKH CTaTbe HaMKOBCKM — Taójrarra TKAHKAH XATA B OKPECT- HOCTHX KPOCHA MceneflOBaroia Hapo^HOM apxMTeKTypbi JJoryHta ( J K e m o B u i n H a ) n o K a 3 a j i n , HTO B H e c K O J i b K n x flepeBHax oKpecTHOCTeił KpocHa OTHCTJIMBO BbiCTynaeT B3anMOCBa3b MejKfly pacnpocTpaHeHHbiM T a M TKau,KHM peMeCJIOM H B H y T p e H H e i i n j i a H M p O B K M T K a i T K M X xaT. C o x p a H H B u i n e c a o6pa3rrbi, 3 a n a c T y i o CTOjieTHeii, a nopoii u C B w m e flByxcoTjieTHeii flaBHocTH, y K a 3 b i B a i O T H a TO, HTO fljia TKar^KOM M 3 6 b i x a p a K T e p e H p a 3 BepHyTbrił nJiaH nocTpoiłKM. ABTOP Bbmejiaer Tpw TMna nocTpoeK: 1) X a T a n o flByxTpaKTHOMy n j i a n y ; 2) x a T a no nojiTopaTpaKTHOMy jKMjioiwy njiaHy; 3) xaTa no njiaHy. nojiTopaTpaKTHOMy xo3aMCTBeHHOMy B paMKax 3TMX nnaHOB aBTop p a c c i n a T p M B a e T pa3- jiMHHbre B a p n a H T b i B H y T p e H H e r o p a c n o j i o J K e H w a x a T , O T o S p a j K a a MX H a n p n j i o > K e H H b i x T a 6 j i n i i a x . ( 0 6 o 3 H a - HeHua: W r — w a r s z t a t ( M a c T e p c K a a ) , I — i z b a (Msóa). Ko — komora (KJieTb), S — sień (ceHM), St — stajnia 103 �N W f-l f-l r—( eu o w < N U N a o. 0> î a •V •s o s fes N U e ¡/i O~ Oí N 0) •N CO •O ns t-t «g ¿ N It ro g ¡I 3 . c N 'E 5 5 « Mo a Wg •M M - . S o « O œ I gis « S S <2 ra N .3 'N ¿ra re c ni 2 £ ~ .M n! 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CO 3 to « 'w to o CU g ü c 5 as O 3 3 S ces ^ s » ^¡ o ' <PS- N po. es cu fj 2 ^ Ł-* S3 i2 c -2 « § ^ a to cc^í í>i«i s >-2; 2 _ eu ^ CU < co to G £ as as cd 3 as NJ G «> •M t! • - --M Oi •ri % « >> ^ as p 03 t-i £.^> »H i 1 as ri N Urf C ouCs-, U rf > >>° 3!* S E' . O CO C£> 2 a£CU p> o M G M <U o N . + ri <M IT« ft + o ; J4 ra N � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/ed9c0327a201c6476120fb5deacd68a5.pdf 9fde91c5b85f2c6441bd7eeefd34fb97 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:3743 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:3516 Title A name given to the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1960 t. 14 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1960 t. 14 z.2, s. 127-128 Language A language of the resource ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Type The nature or genre of the resource czas. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY I S PUBLISHED H F BY T H E ART INSTITUTE N. 2 Y E A R BOOK SUMMMARY Tadeusz O Seweryn - THEORAWA ORBIS L K A OF T H E POLISH ACADAMY OF R T SCIENCES XIV I960 OFARTICLES PICTUS she l e a r n t h o w t o w e a v e d o u b l e s i d e d c a r p e t s f r o m t h e l o c a l w e a v e r s i n Sokółka. S h e w a s t h e n u s i n g T h e a u t h o r analyses t h e paintings on a w a r d r o b e f a c t o r y designs. Bujnowska's creative i n d i v i d u a l i t y f r o m t h e region o n t h e River Orawa, presented t o began t o develop after t h e w a r , w h e n she w a s the Ethnographic M u s e u m i n Cracow i n 1925 b y w o r k i n g i n t h e P o d l a s k a A r t a n d Folk Industry E. M i k a f r o m L i p n i c a W i e l k a ( o n t h e R i v e r O r a w a ) . Cooperative i n Węgrów, managed b y Z. Tomrle. T h e 69 p i c t u r e s d e c o r a t i n g t h e w a r d r o b e , p a i n t e d i n The a i m of t h e cooperative w a s n o t o n l y t o revive the first half o f the X I X century, a r e a valuable h i ­ t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d o f w e a v i n g , b u t also t o create s t o r i c a l r e l i c as t h e l a r g e s t g r o u p o f p i c t u r e s o f a l a y a n e w t y p e o f P o l i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c a r p e t s u i t e d t o c h a r a c t e r i n P o l i s h c o l l e c t i o n s a n d a l s o t h a n k s t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y needs ( i n t h e o l d t i m e s c a r p e t s w e r e interesting creative i n d i v i d u a l i t y of the artist. A c c o r d ­ u s e d as b e d c o v e r s , etc., i n t h e v i l l a g e s ) . I n s p i r e d b y i n g t o t h e d o n o r , t h e p i c t u r e s w e r e p a i n t e d b y h i s Z. T o m r l e , B u j n o w s k a d i s c a r d e d f a c t o r y d e s i g n s a n d great grandfather M i k a , about w h o m w e were n o t t u r n e d t o m o t i f s f r o m n a t u r e ( " G a r d e n " — f i g . 3). successful i n g a i n i n g a n y d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n . M r Se­ T w o conventions influenced h e r w o r k : one — t r a d i ­ w e r y n begins h i s analysis of t h e paintings with tional compositions based o n s i m p l i f i e d p l a n t o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w o r k m a n s h i p a n d t h e effects geometrical motifs adapted t o the weaving technique; used i n t h e p a i n t i n g s , p o i n t i n g t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o n d ­ the second — t h e n a r r a t i v e c o n v e n t i o n , r e f l e c t i n g t h e ness o f t h e a r t i s t f o r l e a d w h i t e a n d b l a c k l i n e s , likings of the contemporaiy f o l k artists, strongly separating one p a i n t i n g f r o m another. A p a r t f r o m encouraged f o r a certain time b y propagators of that, M i k a ' s modest palette also i n c l u d e d yellow social subjects. B o t h these trends appear i n B u j n o w ­ o c h r e , v e r m i l l i o n , a z u r e a n d rose. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ska's w o r k , h e r n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n b e i n g towards feature of his a r t is t h a t h e p a i n t e d a l a p r i m a , w i t h ­ i l l u s t r a t i o n . S h e takes h e r m o t i f s f r o m t h e w o r l d i n out m a k i n g a d r a w i n g first. w h i c h she l i v e s , a n d i n h e r best w o r k ( „ R o a d t h r o u g h t h e V i l l a g e " f i g . 7) s h e h a s f o u n d a n a r t i s t i c i n ­ I n t h e arrangement o f t h e various pictures there terpretation suited t o the technique a n d w o r k m a n s h i p is n o c o n t i n u i t y , e i t h e r i n c o m p o s i t i o n o r i n n a r r a t i v e . of t h e c a r p e t s . I n s o m e o t h e r o f h e r c a r p e t s s h e O n e c a n o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h series o f s u b j e c t s : scenes reverts to naturalism a n d the narrative element f r o m t h e circus, h u n t i n g , a n d t h e fair, i m a g i n a t i v e confuses t h e o r d e r o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n ( „ B e e - h i v e s i n f o l k p i c t u r e s , peasants a n d lords a n d pictures of t h e O r c h a r d " f i g . 11). S e e i n g t h e d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g a n i m a l s . T h e a u t h o r discusses b r o a d l y these series Bujnowska, t h e M i n i s t r y o f Culture and A r t took a n of p i c t u r e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e p o i n t i n g t o t h e s o u r c e interest i n her, ensuring h e r advice f r o m plastic of i n s p i r a t i o n d r a w n f r o m t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e artists. A n i m p o r t a n t role w a s played here b y P r o ­ a r t i s t l i v e d ( v i s i t s t o t h e c i r c u s , scenes a n d p e o p l e fessor E . Plutyńska, w h o h e l p e d B u j n o w s k a t o m a s t e r f r o m h i s life, f o l k l o r e , t h e beliefs o r general m o r a l the laws of w o r k m a n s h i p , teaching h e r the t r a d i t i o n a l t e n d e n c e s o f those t i m e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e c o n d e m ­ colour technique a n d t h e principles of composition, n a t i o n o f d r u n k e n n e s s ) . O n t h e basis o f t h i s a n a l y s i s , Bujnowska's r i c h inventiveness enabled her to depart M r S e w e r y n describes t h e a r t i s t a s : a r e p o r t e r - c a r i ­ f r o m t h e o l d forms a n d create h e r o w n k i n d of caturist, a moralist a n d lampooner. Elsewhere, h e stresses h i s t a l e n t as a p o r t r a i t p a i n t e r ( f i g . 2). „ I n c a r p e t . I n t u r n , h e r w o r k h a d a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e o t h e r w e a v e r s o f t h e Sokółka r e g i o n w h o h a d a l r e a d y t h i s w o r k o n e c a n see t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a r t i s t — learned good w o r k m a n s h i p (thanks t o Professor P l u writes the author i n conclusion — f r o m the p r i m i t i v e tynska's m a n y years w o r k among them). I n several vision characteristic of a child's drawings, t h r o u g h cases t h e y i m i t a t e d B u j n o w s k a ' s s u b j e c t c o m p o s i t i o n s d r a w i n g s f r o m n a t u r e , t o pictures based on t h e w o r l d a l m o s t t o t h e l e t t e r ( f i g . 8) w h i l e i n o t h e r c a r p e t s as t h e a r t i s t s a w a n d r e m e m b e r e d i t and finally t h e y h a v e m a d e , o n e c a n see i n t e r e s t i n g v e r s i o n s o f paintings f r o m his imagination". m o t i f s t a k e n f r o m B u j n o w s k a ' s w o r k ( f i g . 23). Aleksander DOUBLE Blachowski CARPET - DOMINIKA BUJNOWSKA, WEAVER Double-sided carpets a r e k n o w n i n Scandinavia, L i t h u a n i a , a n d i n some n o r t h eastern regions of P o ­ l a n d and a r e made both f o r the villager's themselves a n d f o r t h e t o w n s . T h o s e m a d e f o r use i n t h e v i l l a g e s are i n f l u e n c e d b y factory m a d e carpets, w h i l e t h e carpets m a d e f o r t h e t o w n s contain m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l elements (both w i t h regard to workmanship a n d motifs), a n d inventiveness on the p a r t of the weavers. A m o n g t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g o f these w e a v e r s is D o ­ m i n i k a B u j n o w s k a . B o r n i n 1903 i n Białystok d i s t r i c t , she has b e e n w e a v i n g s i n c e h e r c h i l d h o o d , b u t l e a r n t the various techniques of carpet w e a v i n g i n a vocat­ i o n a l s c h o o l a t a c o n v e n t (1928 t o 1930). A f t e r 1930 Norbert Lippoczy - OSKWAREK PAINTS AGAIN Norbert Lippoczy, a w e l l known collector of p a i n t i n g s o n glass, w e l c o m e s i n h i s a r t i c l e t h e r e t u r n to creative w o r k of K a r o l Oskwarek, w h o abandoned p a i n t i n g i n 1939, because h i s f i n e w o r k s w e r e c o n ­ sidered a faked i m i t a t i o n o f ancient f o l k paintings. I n t h e y e a r s 1930—39 h e p a i n t e d a n o n y m o u s l y a n d then stopped h i s creative w o r k altogether. E n c o u r a g e d b y t h e assistance o f t h e State a f t e r the war, he resumed his w o r k a n d took part i n a competition and exhibition of Podhale art. Norbert Lippoczy considers O s k w a r e k t h e most distinguished contemporary continuator of o l d popular glass painting. 127 �Franciszek CENCES Kotula EMILIA — FOLLOWING HER CHMIEL (REMINIS­ DEATH) T h e a u t h o r g i v e s a p e n p o r t r a i t of E m i l i a C h m i e l , the f o l k sculptress f r o m Rzeszów Voivodship, who died recently. E m i l i a C h m i e l began her artistic w o r k f r o m p a i n t i n g t h e pots m a d e b y her h u s b a n d . E n ­ c o u r a g e d b y h e r success, she b e g a n t o m a k e toys i n clay. I n h e r h a r d life, the t u r n i n g p o i n t was the p r i z e she w o n a t a n e x h i b i t i o n o f f o l k a r t i n Ł a ń c u t i n 1947. H e r success d i d n o t s p o i l t h e a r t i s t . U n t i l t h e e n d she r e t a i n e d h e r i n d i v i d u a l i t y as maker of c e r a m i c f i g u r e s c o m b i n i n g t h e t r u t h a b o u t l i f e w i t h a sense of s c u l p t i n g t e c h n i q u e . Roman Reinfuss COMPETITION. - THE XV POST-WAR CRIB The annual crib competition i n Cracow was m a r ­ k e d f o r t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of e n t r i e s a n d t h e i r v a r i e t y . I t w a s s u r p r i s i n g h o w m a n y c r i b s w i t h stages f o r n a t i v i t y scenes w e r e e n t e r e d as t h e y h a v e b e e n a r a r e t h i n g d u r i n g recent years. T h e j u r y a w a r d e d t w o e q u a l f i r s t p r i z e s to W ł a ­ dysław W i a t r a n d Zdzisław D u d z i k . T h e f o r m e r f o r a c r i b s t a n d i n g out f r o m t h e others w i t h its excellent proportions, beautiful colour scheme a n d carefully finished decorative detail and the latter — for c o r r e c t a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l c o l l e c t i o n of p u p p e t s (fig. 5). Particular interest was aroused by old Tomasz Łata f r o m a P o d h a l e village, w h o entered a t y p i c a l r u r a l crib, primitive, but equipped w i t h mechanism f o r m o v i n g t h e p u p p e t s ( f i g . 1, 2). A . Wojciechowski (fig. 4) a n d Z. G o d y r i m a d e a n a t t e m p t to o v e r c o m e t h e f l a t n e s s t y p i c a l of m o s t c r i b s , a n d A d a m B u j a k , i n s e e k i n g a n e w f o r m , t o o k as h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t t h e three-tower a r m s of C r a c o w , O n t h e o c c a s i o n of the jubilee crib competition, the author recalls t h a t d u r i n g t h e p a s t 15 y e a r s a t o t a l of 528 c r i b s had been entered for the competitions, and the n u m ­ b e r of c r i b m a k e r s w a s 216, o u t of w h i c h h a l f w e r e manual workers. Anna VENIR Kunczyiiska - FOLK COMPETITION IN AND ARTISTIC SOU­ BYDGOSZCZ. As the f o l k art m o v e m e n t develops, the need f o r s o u v e n i r a r t i c l e s is g r o w i n g . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s , a competition for f o l k and artistic souvenirs from Bydgoszcz V o i v o d s h i p was organized i n December, 1959. The competition d i d not b r i n g the expected results. The entries represented, above a l l , folk a r t not suited f o r „souvenirs" w h i l e a m o n g the t y p i c a l souvenir t y p e of w o r k there was a lot of cheap t r a s h . O n l y the painted ceramic w a r e f r o m the factory i n Wloclaw e k is w o r t h y of m e n t i o n (fig. 5). T h i s w a s t h e f i r s t c o m p e t i t i o n of i t s k i n d i n t h i s p a r t o f P o l a n d a n d the participants d i d not really understand w h a t was r e q u i r e d of t h e m . O n the other h a n d , the c o m p e t i t i o n was an interesting r e v i e w of the m o d e r n f o l k a r t of t h a t r e g i o n , a n d brought to l i g h t some new a r t i s t s , a b o v e a l l , t h e s c u l p t o r s F. M a i k ( f i g . 2) a n d K . Z i o m k o ( f i g . 7) a n d K . P o l a n k i e w i c z ( f i g . 6), Z . L e wandowska a n d A . S z e w c z y k ( f i g . 9) w h o entered embroidery. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/6239e80b1c0ab8780b9eb695db65e857.pdf 37772c7572b7078161357c7a54ba6ba8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:3724 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:3498 Title A name given to the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1960 t.14 z.1 Description An account of the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1960 t.14 z.1, s. 63-64 Language A language of the resource ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Państwowy Instytut Sztuki Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text о Р L I S QUARTERLY N. 1 H PUBLISHED BY O THE STATE YEAR BOOK SUMMMARY Jacek Olędzki - WAX VOTIVE THE VILLAGES OF BRODOWE NOWŁOGA WIELKA F OFFERINGS FROM ŁĄKI AND KRZY­ T h e c u s t o m a m o n g p e a s a n t s of m a k i n g v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s is k n o w n i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s o f E u r o p e . T h i s c u s t o m a l s o e x i s t e d i n P o l a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o reliable ethnographic m a t e r i a l on this subject w h i c h w o u l d m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e scope a n d c h a r a c t e r of this practice. J . Oledzki's a r t i c l e is the result of research m a d e b y t h e a u t h o r i n the n o r t h eastern regions of Poland, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the K u r p i e region. A t t h e outset, t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s a b o u t t h e e x i s t i n g v i e w s o n t h e o r i g i n a n d h i s t o r y o f t h e c u s t o m of m a k i n g v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s i n E u r o p e , a n d n e x t expresses the v i e w that i n Poland, v o t i v e offerings w e r e most probably introduced f r o m Bavaria by the Cistercian O r d e r — about the 14th or 15th century, i n the p e r i o d w h e n t h e social a n d economic position of t h e pea­ sants w a s i m p r o v i n g a n d , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of f a r m i n g a n d s t o c k - b r e e d i n g . T h e c u s t o m was to ensure successful stock-breeding, cattle rearing and p o u l t r y breeding. This custom was a conti­ n u a t i o n of t h e recreation practices w h i c h at t h a t t i m e were d y i n g o u t o w i n g to the spread of the catholic r e l i g i o n i n the Polish countryside. I n the 16th c e n t u r y there are u n d o u b t e d proofs of the practice of v o t i v e offerings. A p a r t f r o m the v o t i v e offerings of the „rich" people, made f r o m gold a n d silver, the c o m m o n people made t h e i r o w n v o t i v e offerings f r o m w a x . S u c h v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s w e r e also k n o w n i n S l o v a k i a , B a v a r i a a n d t h e T y r o l , b u t t h e r e , t h e y w e r e soon replaced b y i r o n v o t i v e offerings, w h i l e i n Poland, most probably o w i n g to poverty, only the w a x f o r m of o f f e r i n g continued. T h e y w e r e the peasants' wax t r i b u t e to the C h u r c h . H o w e v e r , o w i n g to difficulties i n o b t a i n i n g wax, etc, as t i m e went, on, church helpers engaged i n m a k i n g v o t i v e offerings a n d they became an object of exchange f o r offerings i n money a n d f o o d t o t h e C h u r c h f r o m b e l i e v e r s . T h e f o r m of t h e votive offerings themselves changed a n d became m o r e u n i f o r m . B u t as f r o m t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y t h e r e was a decline i n the p o p u l a r i t y of this custom a m o n g t h e p e a s a n t r y so t h a t i t i s n o w v e r y r a r e l y p r a c t i c e d . D u r i n g h i s r e s e a r c h w o r k i n n o r t h east P o l a n d , t h e author o n l y met w i t h votive offerings i n t w o pa­ rishes: i n t h e K u r p i e region — B r o d o w e Łąki, a n d i n t h e Przasnysz District — Krzynowłoga Wjelka. T h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h i s c u s t o m i n these places c a n be e x p l a i n e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c b a c k w a r d n e s s of t h a t area, its distance f r o m i m p o r t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n cen­ tres a n d routes. T h e c h u r c h i n Krzynowłoga was e r e c t e d as f a r b a c k as t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , w h i l e t h e c h u r c h i n B r o d o w e Łąki was b u i l t i n the 19th cen­ tury. T h e c u s t o m o f m a k i n g v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s is o b s e r ­ ved i n b o t h parishes on the Day of the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ( A u g u s t 6 t h ) a n d i n K r z y n o w ł o g a t h e c u s t o m is a d d i ­ t i o n a l l y o b s e r v e d o n F e b r u a r y 1 4 t h — St. V a l e n t i n e ' s D a y L K INSTITUTE A OF XIV R T ART I960 OF ARTICLES ( t h e p a t r o n s a i n t of t h e c h u r c h ) . T h e p r a c t i c e of m a k i n g t h e s e o f f e r i n g s has u n d e r g o n e c e r t a i n changes a n d t o d a y i t is n o t t h e s a m e i n b o t h of t h e s e p a ­ rishes. T h e v o t i v e offerings are m a d e b y so-called „ b r a s t e w n y " (peasants k n o w n f o r t h e i r h o n e s t y a n d piety, engaged i n m a k i n g v o t i v e offerings, hiring t h e m o u t , etc). I n K r z y n o w ł o g a t h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s w e r e m a d e s e v e r a l score y e a r s ago, w h i l e i n B r o d o w e Ł ą k i t h e y a r e n e w l y m a d e each t i m e b y t h e „ b r a s ­ tewny": M o s t of t h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s t a k e t h e f o r m of a n i m a l s - p a r t i c u l a r l y horses ( f i g . 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11), t h e r e a r e also c o w s ( f i g . 14, 15), c a l v e s ( f i g . 16), sheep, v e r y r a r e l y p i g s ( f i g . 17). S o m e o t h e r s r e p r e s e n t d o ­ mestic p o u l t r y ( f i g . 1 8 - 2 3 ) , b u t t h e y a r e less p o p u l a r i n Krzynowłoga. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , one f i n d s t h e r e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s i n t h e f o r m of bees ( f i g . 24) a n d h i v e s ( f i g . 25), w h i c h d o n o t e x i s t i n B r o d o w e Ł ą k i . A s e p a r a t e a n d less n u m e r o u s g r o u p r e p r e s e n t s y m ­ b o l s o f h e a l t h a n d success: a „ r i n g " , w r e a t h s , b a l l s , a n d , i n K r z y n o w ł o g a — h e a r t s , j a w s , legs, arms ( f i g . 4). I n b o t h p a r i s h e s t h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g of a „ c h i l d " is k n o w n ( f i g . 27, 28, 29), a l t h o u g h i t appears v e r y r a r e l y in B r o d o w e Łąki, like the „hearts", legs" a n d „arms", w h i c h are f o u n d v e r y often however i n Krzynowłoga. The author explains the difference i n subjects of interest between b o t h parishes, t h e differences i n the social m i l i e u s a n d conditions of life, s h o w i n g the stronger influence of bourgeois ideals i n Krzynowłoga, w h e r e the p o ­ p u l a t i o n is c o m p o s e d o f t h e d e s c e n d e n t s of f o r m e r nobles. T h e a u t h o r also o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a r t i ­ s t i c f o r m of t h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s , w h i c h i n K r z y n o ­ włoga are closely connected w i t h t h e properties o f the m a t e r i a l s used t o m a k e t h e m w h i l e i n B r o d o w e Łąki t h e y a r e s i m i l a r to t h e s c h e m a t i c d e s i g n of t h e d o u g h figures still widely made i n the K u r p i e region ( f i g . 30, 3 1 , 32, 33, 34). T h e B r o d o w e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s a r e u s u a l l y 12—14 c m . h i g h , w h i l e t h o s e m a d e i n K r z y n o w ł o g a a r e u s u a l l y 6—7 c m . I n spite of these differences i n f o r m , t h e v o t i v e offerings f r o m b o t h parishes have a n u m b e r of fea­ tures i n c o m m o n — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e w a y of seeing the objects represented, i n t h e l a p i d a r y approach a n d e l o q u e n c e of f o r m . T h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s d i f f e r f r o m all other folk sculptures, above a l l i n t h e i r function — t h e y are not m a d e to satisfy aesthetic needs — b u t e x c l u s i v e l y f o r g a i n i n g c e r t a i n graces f r o m G o d . T h i s specific f u n c t i o n determines b o t h t h e subject a n d t h e general artistic expression of these wax votive offerings. Aleksander Błachowskt THE FOLK ART OF P A I N T E D CHESTS FROM RESEARCH ON THE OPOLE REGION. O n t h e basis o f m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t h e O p o l e r e g i o n (1953) t h e a u t h o r m a k e s a n a n a ­ l y s i s of t h e p a i n t e d chests f r o m t h i s r e g i o n . The 63 T �O p o l e chests a r e m a d e f r o m pine wood and arc r e c t a n g u l a r i n shape. T h e y a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h p a i n ­ t e d o r n a m e n t a t i o n , _ t h e f r o n t o f t h e chests is d i v i ­ ded i n t o t w o squares f i l l e d w i t h t r a i l i n g f l o w e r resigns. T h e r a n g e of c o l o u r s u s e d is r e l a t i v e l y b r o a d . T h e o r n a m e n t a t i o n has several common elements and t h i s p o i n t s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of a d e f i n i t e r e g i o n a l group. B u t there are h o w e v e r v a r i a t i o n s i n the t y ­ p i c a l e l e m e n t s . T h e a u t h o r g i v e s as e x a m p l e s chests f r o m t h e O l e s n o ( f i g . 2—9, 12, 15, 16—22), K l u c z ­ b o r k ( f i g . 10 - ) a n d S t r z e l c e ( f i g . 13, 14) d i s t r i c t s , p o i n t i n g to the characteristic differences i n construc­ tion and decoration. A f t e r analysing the different t y p e s , t h e a u t h o r m a k e s a c o m p a r s i o n b e t w e e n chests from Opole and from Upper Silesia, remarking a n u m b e r of c o m m o n f e a t u r e s , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e o r n a m e n t a t i o n a n d f i n a l l y the v e r y composition of the decoration. B u t a p a r t f r o m these c o m m o n f e a t u r e s , t h e O p o l e chests d i f f e r f r o m t h e U p p e r Silesian ones, both in their richer ornamentation and colour scheme, a n d i n a n u m b e r of details w h i c h give t h e m t h e i r o w n special appearance. Olga Mulkiewicz - OPEN-WORK WOVEN FABRICS T h e F o l k A r t Research Section at the State I n s t i ­ t u t e o f A r t has c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l o n o p e n - w o r k w o v e n fabrics i n Podlasie region a n d the n o r t h e r n part of L u b l i n region. „ T h o u g h t h i s t e c h n i q u e is a l i e n t o t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l methods of w e a v i n g — Miss M u l k i e w i c z w r i t e s — i t is w o r t h y o f b e i n g s t u d i e d p r e c i s e l y because o f i t s peculiar character, differing m u c h f r o m traditional m e t h o d s of w e a v i n g a n d also because i t is q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y used n o w . I t was not possible to ascertain w h o i n v e n t e d t h i s t e c h n i q u e o f w e a v i n g , b u t i t is certain that i t was u n k n o w n before the Twenties a n d possibly i t was i n t r o d u c e d o n l y after the Second World War." T h e authoress gives a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the open-work weaving technique a n d w r i t e s that the f i n i s h i n g stage is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t one, because h e r e b y f a s t e n i n g loose s k e i n s o f y a r n t h e w e a v e r can o b t a i n v a r i o u s designs w h i c h , j u d g e d b y the collected m a t e r i a l , are q u i t e l i m i t e d i n n u m b e r . Because of their character open-work woven f a b r i c s a r e m o s t l y used as t a b l e - c l o t h s o r c u r t a i n s . Zbigniew Jasiewicz FERS F R O M T H E - M O U L D FOR B A K I N G WA­ VICINITY OF MIĘDZYRZECZE T h e a u t h o r o f t h e a r t i c l e discusses one of t h e most interesting folk art relics f r o m the Lubusz r e g i o n , f o u n d i n K a l s k i n 1958 b y a g r o u p of P o l i s h e t h n o g r a p h e r s . I t is a d e c o r a t e d i r o n o b j e c t ( t i t l e page) a n d t h e d e c o r a t i v e m o t i f s a n d t h e i r p r i m i t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t ( f i g . 1) p o i n t t o i t s f o l k o r i g i n . F u r t h e r research revealed t h a t this object h a d been used f o r b a k i n g wafers. The very unique decorative motifs a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e u s e d i n d e c o r a t i o n , s h o w i n g basic differences between the K a l s k tongs a n d analogical relics found i n B r a n d e n b u r g a n d L o w e r Saxony lead one t o a t t r i b u t e i t t o t h e r e g i o n i n w h i c h i t w a s f o u n d . T h e m o t i f — a b u n c h o f g r a p e s — is k n o w n f r o m t h e e m b r o i d e r y of t h e L u b u s z r e g i o n . I t is also k n o w n that the b a k i n g of wafers (factory made, it is t r u e ) w a s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d i n t h i s r e g i o n . O u r r e s e a r c h l e a d s us t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e b a k i n g m o u l d f o u n d dates b a c k to t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . St. F. Cajerski - MATERIALS OF T H E POTTERY CENTRES SURROUNDING DISTRICTS FOR T H E HISTORY IN POTYLICZ AND The author publishes materials f r o m various ar­ chive collections. T h e oldest documents (materials f r o m i n s p e c t i o n s a n d i n v e n t o r i e s ) d a t i n g b a c k t o 1460, 64 concern Potylicz a n d g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n as t o the n u m b e r of potters w o r k i n g there a n d t h e i r duties u p t i l l t h e t i m e of t h e p a r t i t i o n s o f P o l a n d (1772). I n the period after the partitions, Potylicz was still famous for its pottery. M a t e r i a l collected b y the State A r t I n s t i t u t e t h r o w s l i g h t on the p e r i o d pre­ c e d i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , w h e n t h e r e w e r e 10 p o t ­ ters w o r k i n g there, w h i l e i n the i n t e r - w a r period, 10 p o t t e r y w o r k s h o p s w e r e o p e r a t i n g i n w h i c h t h e p o t t e r s w o r k e d as p a i d l a b o u r e r s . T h e i r p r o d u c t s w e r e w i d e l y sold. A n o t h e r pottery centre near Potylicz — Dziewię­ c i e r z — also h a s o l d t r a d i t i o n s , i n v e n t o r i e s " s h o w t h a t the n u m b e r of potters w o r k i n g there varies a g r e a t d e a l ( f o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1710 — 17 a n d i n 1 7 1 6 4) a n d also g i v e a n i d e a o f t h e i r d u t i e s t o t h e c o u r t . B e f o r e 1939 a n d i n t h e f i r s t y e a r s a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r 10 p o t t e r s w e r e w o r k i n g h e r e . T h e y p r o ­ duced c o o k i n g pots a n d ceramic w a r e , t h e i r products b e i n g s o l d w i d e l y i n a n u m b e r of places. T h e a u t h o r adds here some i n f o r m a t i o n about s m a l l e r c e n t r e s i n t h e a r e a s u c h as: H r a b e n n e a n d K a m i o n k a Wołowska. I n his c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s , M r . G a j e r s k i quotes materials showing h o w the pottery centre i n Potylicz began to decline i n the 18th century, w h e n the p o t ­ ters — being b u r d e n e d too h e a v i l y w i t h duties — f l e d to n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s . I t is p r o b a b l y i n t h i s w a y t h a t the n e w p o t t e r y centres i n Dziewięcierz. Hrabenne a n d K a m i o n k a Wołowska were formed. Ewa Fryś ŁAŃCUT - EXHIBITION OF FOLK ART IN A n e x h i b i t i o n of f o l k a r t , o r g a n i z e d b y t h e U n i o n of F o l k a n d A r t i s t i c I n d u s t r y C o o p e r a t i v e s CPLiA, w i t h t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e „ J e d n o ś ć " Cooperative i n Pawłów, t h e „Zjednoczenie" Cooperative i n Janów Lubelski and the Folk A r t I n d u s t r y Cooperative i n Leżajsk, w a s o p e n e d i n Łańcut o n N o v e m b e r 1 2 t h , 1959. T h e e x h i b i t i o n w a s m a i n l y d e v o t e d t o f o l k e a r t h e n w a r e e x h i b i t e d on the occasion of t h e c o m ­ p e t i t i o n r u n b y C P L i A a n d t h e M i n i s t r y of C u l t u r e a n d A r t . T h e Rzeszów a n d L u b l i n p o t t e r y centres w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d , d i s p l a y i n g g r e y , ( f i g . 1) p a i n t e d a n d g l a z e d e a r t h e n w a r e . T h e r e w a s also q u i t e a r i c h s h o w of s c u l p t u r e s i n clay. T h e e x h i b i t i o n also i n c l u ­ d e d a d i s p l a y of t h e „ K o r o n k a " C o o p e r a t i v e i n B o ­ b o w a a n d a b i g show of decorative fabrics produced b y t h e „ P r z e m y s ł L u d o w y " C o o p e r a t i v e i n Leżajsk. T h e c o m p e t i t i o n , o n w h i c h t h e e x h i b i t i o n w a s based, was a i m e d at encouraging potters to produce earthen­ w a r e of great a r t i s t i c value, cleansed of n o n - f o l k influences. A t t h e s a m e t i m e as the exhibition a conference of t h e r e g i o n a l p u r c h a s e c e n t r e s of C P L i A w a s h e l d t o select a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of d e ­ s i g n s f o r sale i n P o l a n d a n d a b r o a d . Maria DERY Przeździecka I N RZESZÓW EXHIBITION OF EMBROI­ A n exhibition of historical embroideries on linen, d a t i n g back to the 16th- 18th centuries, was opened i n R z e s z ó w i n N o v e m b e r , 1959. I n h e r r e v i e w , t h e a u t h o r e s s , stresses t h e a p t s e l e c t i o n o f e x h i b i t s a n d t h e e x c e l l e n t a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e e x h i b i t i o n . A m o n g t h e 17 e m b r o i d e r i e s e x h i b i t e d , t h e o l d e s t dated back to the 16th a n d 17th centuries. T h e most valuable a n d rare e x h i b i t was a chalice cover f r o m Jarosław ( f i g . 1.), r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m o s t t e c h n i c a l l y s k i l l e d t y p e of e m b r o i d e r y o f t h a t t i m e . Some of the 17th c e n t u r y e m b r o i d e r y on c h u r c h cloths shows a tendency t o w a r d s a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of design. T h e authoress shows the development of these tendencies i n t h e 18th c e n t u r y embroideries ( f i g . 4.). � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/2bf2bcc67f0dd084f85cb6701e50246c.pdf 4eef0445641986087e1845c79d7ce4f8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:3756 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:3528 Title A name given to the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1960 t.14 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1960 t.14 z.3, s.190-192 Language A language of the resource ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY I S PUBLISHED H F O BY THE ART INSTITUTE N. 3 OF L K THE POLISH A ACADAMY OF Y E A R BOOK X I V R T SCIENCES I960 SUMMMARY O F A R T I C L E S Jerzy Pietrusiński ICON DAUBING. - EASTERN MAŁOPOLSKA Research on late Byzantine and Byzantine-like p a i n t i n g i n P o l a n d has n o t y e t g o n e f a r e n o u g h t o determine definitely the artistic origin of icon paint­ ing, its trends a n d technique, or to establish its authorship, date a n d t h e social d e m a n d f o r i t . I t is t r u e t h a t , a p a r t f r o m t h e R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e f r o m M o s c o w a n d N o v g o r o d , t h i s t r e n d has also been t r a c e d to t h e B a l k a n s , b u t these observations have n o t b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y v e r i f i e d . T h e r e has also b e e n too l i t t l e a r c h i v e research. The archive material p u b l i s h e d so f a r p o i n t s t o t h e f a c t t h a t p a i n t e r s of i c o n s , w h o u p t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y served royalty, began to belong to guilds a n d even to groups o f i c o n daubers ( „ p i c t o r suburbanus"). T h e purchasers of icons produced b y these guilds a n d daubers were m o s t l y the clergy a n d towns­ people, m a i n l y i n Russia, b u t t h e r e w e r e also P o l i s h i c o n p a i n t e r s a n d P o l i s h purchasers. T h e basis f o r o u r p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a r e r e l i c s t h a t c a n be d e f i n i t e l y d a t e d . T h e a u t h o r of t h e a r t i c l e a n a l y s e s a g r o u p of specimens of icon p a i n t i n g p r o d u c e d i n Eastern M a ł o p o l s k a (on t h e U k r a i n i a n border) w h e n t h i s a r t w a s a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t o d i e out (17th a n d 18th cen­ turies). T h e p r i m i t i v i s m a n d occidentalism of the B y z a n t i n e - l i k e p a i n t i n g of t h a t region is t h e m a i n motif influencing both the f o r m and style a n d the i c o n o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n schemes as w e l l as the purport and meaning they symbolized. A n example of t h e c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h i s a r t a r e t h e i m a g e s of St. G e o r g e d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 16th c e n t u r y ( f i g . 9-12) a n d „ D e a t h of t h e V i r g i n M a r y " , f r o m t h e 17th a n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s ( f i g . 1 3 - 2 1 ) . H e r e one can trace t h e change f r o m t h e eastern B y z a n t i n e - l i k e a r t to the conventional B a r o q u e - l i k e a r t o f the West. I n the group of icons presented here, some o f t h e m b o r d e r on f o l k a r t , w h i l e others b o r d e r on the professional a r t of the guilds a n d t h e d a u b e r s . A l l of t h e m a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r i m i t i v i z a t i o n of B a r o q u e - l i k e forms, p a r t l y o r i g i n ­ a t i n g f r o m b o o k i l l u s t r a t i o n s . T h e f o l k i c o n s ( f i g , 20, 27, 29), i n s p i t e o f t h e v i s i b l e i n f l u e n c e o f B a r o q u e ­ l i k e s t y l i z a t i o n , a r e h o w e v e r n o t s i m p l y copies of this art. T h e i r p r i m i t i v i s m results n o t o n l y from a l a c k o f t r a i n i n g i n technique, t h e y also h a v e t h e s i m p l i c i t y of f o r m peculiar to f o l k artists a n d the characteristic simple s y m m e t r y i n the arrangement o f t h e f i g u r e s , i n t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e faces a n d i n the azure coloured background. This simplicity can 190 be seen i n t h e symbolic backgrounds replacing i l l u s i o n i s t s c e n e r y ( f i g . 30), i n t h e f r e e , s k e t c h y o u t ­ l i n e o f t h e f i g u r e s , w h o s e faces a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f t h e p e a s a n t s , a n d t h i s is e v i d e n t i n t h e f o l k i c o n s f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e 17th century. T h e f o l k icons take the o l d iconographic schemats a n d t h e i r hieratic, representative character, i n t r o d u c i n g n e w e m o t i o n a l v a l u e s . H e r e ' w e see a s o r t of „ r e a l i s m " i n t h e m e a n s of e x p r e s s i o n , a i m e d a t f a c i l i t a t i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the religious m e a n i n g . T h e f o l k i c o n s go h a n d i n h a n d w i t h g r a p h i c a r t , w h i c h was often the source of i n s p i r a t i o n . T h e chan­ ges i n i c o n p a i n t i n g i n t h e 1 7 t h a n d 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s w e n t so f a r t h a t , a p a r t f r o m t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c sche­ mat, v e r y l i t t l e r e m a i n e d of the B y z a n t i n e - l i k e t r a ­ ditions i n painting. I n conclusion, the a u t h o r calls f o r research i n t o the o r i g i n of f o l k p a i n t i n g i n Eastern Małopolska f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the influence exercised by icon painting. Roman Reinfuss VAKIA (Notes f r o m — FOLK ART I N CZECHOSLO­ a V i s i t i n 1959) G i v i n g his observations a b o u t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n f o l k art i n Czechoslovakia, the author writes that the degree t o w h i c h i t has s u r v i v e d i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y varies considerably. F o r instance, i n Bohemia, t h e most h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p a r t of the c o u n t r y , w h i c h has b e e n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e W e s t f o r c e n t u r i e s , f o l k a r t has d i e d o u t t o a m u c h greater extent. T h e h i s t o r i c a l changes i n d e v e l o p ­ m e n t c a n be seen, a m o n g o t h e r s , i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h e v i l l a g e s , w h e r e w e see f o r m s r e s u l t i n g f r o m folk influence o n the architecture of the towns ( f i g . 1, 2). T h e u r b a n i n f l u e n c e c a n a l s o b e s e e n i n i n t e r i o r d e c o r a t i o n a n d is also o u s t i n g f o l k costumes, w h i c h are o n l y m e t w i t h n o w among the w o m e n of t h e so-called „ C h o d s k " ( r o u n d the t o w n of D o m a z l i c e ) . A r t i s t i c f o l k h a n d i c r a f t s d i e d o u t as f a r b a c k as t h e t u r n o f t h e 1 9 t h a n d 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s , o r w e r e a d a p t e d t o s u i t t h e needs o f t h e t o w n s . One can o n l y f i n d f o l k sculptures i n t h e museums. T h i s s a m e process i n M o r a v i a s t a r t e d a l i t t l e l a t e r , a n d thanks to this there are still w e l l preserved specimens of t i m b e r buildings a n d clay huts w i t h p o l y c h r o m i e o r n a m e n t a t i o n ( f i g . 5.). I n s i d e t h e c o t t ­ ages, i n s p i t e o f i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d f u r n i t u r e o n t h e u r b a n m o d e l , one meets w i t h p a i n t e d coffers a n d folk benches ( i n C z e c h o s l o v a k Silesia, t h e old interior �decorations do n o t differ f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r s of S i l e s i a n h i g h l a n d e r s ' cottages o n t h e P o l i s h side). T h e f o l k costumes, s t i l l w o r n d u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r p e r i o d , have n o w disappeared. One meets here a n d there r e m a i n s o f t h e o l d f o l k h a n d i c r a f t s . F o l k a r t has s u r v i v e d to the greatest degree i n the parts of Slo­ v a k i a t h a t are the least a n d latest i n d u s t r i a l i z e d . Particularly in the most conservative Ukrainian v i l l a g e s o n e c a n s t i l l see r e l i c s o f t h e o l d m a t e r i a l a n d s o c i a l c u l t u r e . B u t h e r e , as i n t h e w h o l e o f S l o ­ v a k i a , changes are b e g i n n i n g to t a k e place w h i c h are ousting the t r a d i t i o n a l culture. H o w e v e r , o l d b u i l d i n g s h a v e been w e l l p r e s e r v e d here, a n d t h e r e are some good specimens o f t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r i o r s w i t h d e c o r a t i v e m u r a l p a i n t i n g s ( f i g . 7) a n d i n t h e houses t h e r e a r e a l s o r e l i c s o f f o l k a r t s u c h as f u r n i t u r e , o r n a m e n t e d tools, o l d c e r a m i c w a r e , i n c l u d i n g the grey ceramic w a r e produced here t i l l the i n t e r - w a r period. H e r e there are q u i t e a n u m b e r of f o l k pottery workshops and hand printing works still operating. Folk costumes are w o r n on holidays. P a i n t i n g s o n glass, w h i c h a r e b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e r a r e , a r e u s u a l l y f o u n d i n t h e r e g i o n o f Spis. F o l k s c u l p t u r e i n t h e s e p a r t s has s u r v i v e d w e l l a n d c a n even be f o u n d i n the t o w n s i n shrines i n niches on t h e w a l l s o f houses. Thanks to the i m p o r t a n t role played by folk culture i n the p e r i o d o f the national r e b i r t h of the Czechs a n d t h e S l o v a k s i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , i t soon became t h e object of scientific research. A l r e a d y i n 1894 t h e N a r o d o p i s n a S p o l e c n o s t Ceskoslovenska w a s set u p t o c a r r y o u t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e folk c u l t u r e o f t h e S l o v a k s , a n d i n 1895, a n e t h n o g r a p h i c e x h i b i t i o n was organized i n Prague, w h i c h initiated the campaign of collecting specimens o f f o l k art i n m u s e u m s . A t p r e s e n t , r e s e a r c h is b e i n g c o n d u c t e d by the E t h n o g r a p h i c Institutes of t h e Ceskoslovenska Akademia Vied i n Prague (with a branch i n Brno) and of the Slovenska A k a d e m i a V i e d i n Bratislava. C e n t r e s a t t h e u n v e r s i t i e s a n d at n u m e r o u s m u s e u m s a r e also c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h o n f o l k c u l t u r e . T h e lack of an i n s t i t u t i o n i n Czechoslovakia w h i c h c o u l d c o n d u c t ^research i n t o f o l k a r t is t h e reason for neglect i n this f i e l d . T h e o n l y centre to conduct l o c a l r e s e a r c h is t h e „ U s t r e d i L i d o v e a U m e l c k e Vyroby", but only w i t h the a i m of examining the p r o d u c t i o n possibilities of f o l k handicrafts. T h e same centre takes a l i v e l y interest i n f o l k products, and, being guided mainly b y economic considerations a l l o w s too m u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n f r o m t r a i n e d artists who are r e d u c i n g f o l k a r t to t h e role of r e p r o d u c i n g patterns s u p p l i e d f o r this purpose. The Svez Ukraińskich Pracujucich in Presov collects a n d publishes m a t e r i a l s f o r the e t h n o g r a p h y of t h e U k r a i n i a n p o p u l a t i o n . T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c c o l ­ lections i n Bohemia a n d M o r a v i a , n u m b e r i n g over 43,000 e x h i b i t s , a r e t o be f o u n d i n 250 m u s e u m s a n d i n S l o v a k i a , i n a b o u t 15 m u s e u m s . T h e s e e t h n o g r a p h i c m u s e u m s a r e sections i n m a n y - d e p a r t m e n t museums a n d t h i s l a c k o f i n d e p e n d e n c e has a n a d v e r s e e f f e c t on their development. The exhibits are arranged according to the h i s t o r i c a l o r d e r of a topographical museum. The ethnographic materials are very mo­ destly represented i n r e l a t i o n to the collections i n the store-houses of t h e museums, w h i l e the u n i f o r m s c h e m a t o f t h e e x h i b i t s erases t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l f e a ­ tures. T h e w o r k e r s o f the museums keep scientific files, m a k e i n v e n t o r i e s , do c o n s e r v a t i o n w o r k , c o n ­ duct educational campaigns a n d organize exhibitions. I n 1952 a S k a n s e n m u s e u m w a s o p e n e d i n M o r a v i a (Roznov). T h e question o f Skansens is n o w t o p i c a l o w i n g to the devastation o f m a n y historical relics. In conclusion, the author informs the reader about Czechoslovak p u b l i c a t i o n s devoted to folk c u l t u r e , a m o n g w h i c h s p e c i a l m e n t i o n i s d u e to the series „ M a l e t i s k y " ( s m a l l p r i n t s ) i s s u e d b y t h e E t h n o ­ graphic Department i n Brno and edited by L . Kunz, a n d also t h e y e a r b o o k „ N o v e o b z o r y " i s s u e d b y t h e voivodship m u s e u m i n Presov, the q u a r t e r l y „ V a lassko" issued b y the m u s e u m i n B r n o a n d lastly „Radostna Zeme" published by Slesky Ustav i n Opava. Vladimir WARE Scheufler IN THE (Prague) BOHEMIAN — BLACK CERAMIC TERRITORIES T h e a u t h o r deals w i t h t h r e e groups of black ceramic w a r i n Bohemia: graphite, smoked and b l a c k e n e d w a r e . G r a p h i t e c e r a m i c w a r e ( f i g . 1, 2) is m a d e f r o m c l a y w i t h p o w d e r e d g r a p h i t e a d d e d t o make i t m o r e durable. I t was used i n pre-histonc t i m e s f o r vessels of e v e r y d a y use. I n the times recorded b y history i t was used exclusively for t e c h n i c a l purposes. T h i s t y p e of c e r a m i c w a r e w a s widespread i n the m i n i n g regions of B o h e m i a a n d M o r a v i a to meet the needs of m i n i n g a n d m e t a l l u r g y , a n d w a s used to m a k e m i n e r s ' lamps, s m a l l crucibles a n d s t o r a g e vessels. T h e s e u t e n s i l s d i s a p p e a r e d i n the 17th a n d 18th centuries i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n i q u e . O r n a m e n t a t i o n is r a r e l y m e t w i t h i n g r a p h i t e ceramic w a r e a n d is t h e n l i m i t e d to engraved h o r i z o n t a l lines, either s t r a i g h t or w a v y . T h e s e u t e n s i l s w e r e u s u a l l y m a d e b y t h e local potters. Smoked ceramic w a r e was very widespread i n B o h e m i a (fig. 3-9), a n d the methods o f its p r o d u c t i o n did not differ in principle from the technique a p p l i e d i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h e vessels w e r e b a k e d once a n d a t t h e e n d o f t h e b a k i n g a l l t h e o p e n i n g s i n t h e f u r n a c e w e r e s t o p p e d u p so t h a t t h e soot w h i c h t h e n f o r m e d s e t t l e d o n t h e vessels. After h a v i n g b e i n g r e m o v e d f r o m t h e f u r n a c e t h e vessels w e r e p o l i s h e d , e i t h e r a l l o v e r o r p a r t i a l l y ( f i g . 6, 8, 9) w h i c h process g a v e a s i m p l e o v a l o r n a m e n t a t ­ ion. S o m e t i m e s t h e s e vessels w e r e d e c o r a t e d with engraved or stamped pattents. This smoked ceramic mass w a s m o r e d u r a b l e t h a n t h e r e d c e r a m i c w a r e . Furnaces suitable for producing smoked ceramic w a r e w e r e k n o w n i n B o h e m i a as f a r b a c k as t h e 9th c e n t u r y , a n d i n t h e m i d d l e ages, t h e s m o k i n g o f c e r a m i c w a r e w a s a t e c h n i q u e as w i d e s p r e a d as r e d ceramics a n d represented a l l forms of mediaeval B o h e m i a n c e r a m i c vessels. B u t the most common f o r m w a s p o t s a n d j u g s f o r k e e p i n g f o o d i n . Vessels for ornamental purposes w e r e n o t smoked, and therefore smoked ceramic w a r e w a s m o r e c o m m o n in the c o u n t r y s i d e t h a n i n the t o w n s . I n the 16th century, the ever m o r e p o p u l a r glazed ceramic w a r e l i m i t e d t h e use o f s m o k e d c e r a m i c s o n l y t o c e r t a i n t y p e s o f vessels ( f o r s t o r a g e , f e r m e n t a t i o n , etc.). A t t h e e n d o f t h e 18th c e n t u r y s m o k e d c e r a m i c w a r e disappeared i n the regions where there was the g r e a t e s t t e c h n i c a l progress, b u t i t r e m a i n e d t i l l t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y ( f i g . 8, 9) i n t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y b a c k w a r d areas. Such w a r e was still p r o d u c e d i n 1945 at p o t t e r y w o r k s h o p s i n M i l e v s k , Svarka, Kunstat, Valassko, Klobouky and Val. M e z i r i c . A t p r e s e n t s m o k e d c e r a m i c w a r e is p r o d u ­ ced i n v e r y s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s a n d solely f o r deco­ r a t i v e purposes. T h e t h i r d type of black ceramic w a r e is the b l a c k e n e d v a r i e t y , (after b a k i n g , a s o l u t i o n o f soot a n d v i n e g a r is r u b b e d i n t o the vessel which is afterwards polished). O n t h e basis o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d , t h e a u t h o r s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f vessel was p r o d u c e d i n M i l e v s k , a l t h o u g h no specimens were found. There are not many specimens of ceramic w a r e i n the museums either, a n d blackened not m u c h 191 �r e s e a r c h has b e e n m a d e i n t o t h i s t e c h n i q u e . T h e a u t h o r gives a list o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a t i o n s o n t h i s k i n d o f c e r a m i c w a r e a t t h e e n d of h i s article. Franciszek MAKER Kotula OF — CARVED WINCENTY JASKIER — TOYS W . J a s k i e r , b o r n i n 1892 i n D ę b i c a d i s t r i c t ( R z e ­ s z ó w V o i v o d s h i p ) , b e g a n t o c a r v e i n w o o d as a s m a l l boy w h i l e t e n d i n g cows. L a t e r he stopped c a r v i n g o w i n g t o l a c k o f t i m e . I t w a s o n l y a f e w y e a r s ago, as a n o l d m a n i n c a p a b l e o f d o i n g h e a v y f a r m w o r k , that he started tending cows again a n d w e n t back t o h i s c r e a t i v e w o r k . H e c a r v e s toys f o r c h i l d r e n i n w o o d : carts, w i n d m i l l s , b i r d s a n d a n i m a l s , d r a w i n g the outline first on a t h i c k board f r o m w h i c h he carves t h e m w i t h a pocket knife. H e takes the subjects f o r his w o r k f r o m his surroundings, f r o m h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s . A n e x c e p t i o n is t h e „ L i o n " ( f i g . 3, 4). c a r v e d f r o m a d r a w i n g he f o u n d i n a book. Jaskier does n o t c a r v e h u m a n f i g u r e s , i n . s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a r i s h p r i e s t has t r i e d t o p e r s o u a d e h i m t o carve religious figurines. A p a r t f r o m m a k i n g toys, h e a l s o m a k e s b a s k e t s f o r h i s o w n use a n d f l o w e r pot stands of fine w o r k m a n s h i p . B u t they have not t h e s a m e a r t i s t i c v a l u e s as h i s c a r v e d a n i m a l s , o f s y n t h e t i c f o r m , severe, h e a v y b l o c k s a n d p a i n s t a k ­ i n g l y s m o o t h e d surfaces, s o m e of w h i c h a r e o r n a ­ m e n t e d w i t h e n g r a v i n g b r i n g i n g out certain details i n decorative r h y t h m . Henryk Świątkowski — OLD ŁOWICZ EMBROIDERY One of the oldest fields of decorative f o l k a r t i n t h e Ł o w i c z r e g i o n is e m b r o i d e r y . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the design, decorative m o t i f s a n d colour scheme has n o e q u a l a n y w h e r e i n P o l a n d . I n a d e t a i l e d a n a ­ l y s i s of Ł o w i c z e m b r o i d e r y , H . Ś w i ą t k o w s k i d e s c r i b e s the technique of the o l d stitches: back stitch a n d c h a i n s t i t c h t h e d e c o r a t i v e m o t i f s ( f i g . 2) a n d t h e colour scheme. E m b r o i d e r y w a s f i r s t u s e d as a d e c o r a t i o n t o costumes i n the m i d d l e of t h e 19th c e n t u r y . I n l a t e r years i t developed greatly, its f o r m s becoming ever more complex. A t the end of the last century, the o l d Ł o w i c z e m b r o i d e r y began to die out. T h e range of colours a n d technique u n d e r w e n t a change. T h e n e w f a s h i o n b r o u g h t i n cross s t i t c h e m b r o i d e r y , and, i n consequence, a change i n t h e ornamental motifs. D u r i n g the i n t e r - w a r period, a n u m b e r of lovers of f o l k a r t t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e Ł o w i c z e m b r o i d e r e r s to r e t u r n to the t r a d i t i o n a l Ł o w i c z pattenrns. A f t e r the last w a r this campaign was taken up by the C P L i A (Union of F o l k a n d A r t i s t i c I n d u s t r y Cooper­ a t i v e s ) . B u t t h e s y s t e m o f mass p r o d u c t i o n d i d n o t h a v e a good effect on the results, w h i c h d i d not s u c c e e d i n r e v i v i n g t h e b e a u t i f u l t r a d i t i o n s of o l d Łowicz embroidery. Olga BY Mulkiewicz - EXHIBITION THE INHABITANTS OF OF FOLK ART GORLICE P o i n t i n g to t h e fact thas i n s u f f i c i e n t research is conducted on the c u l t u r e of t h e people of Gorlice, situated at the foot of the m o u n t a i n s i n R z e s z ó w Voivodship, the author stresses the importance of t h e e x h i b i t i o n w h i c h g i v e s a p i c t u r e o f t h e f o l k a r t achievements of t h a t area. T h e e x h i b i t s o f o l d historic relics a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k showed the v i t a l i t y of this a r t a n d its t r a d i t i o n a l forms. T h e e x h i b i t i o n shows a w i d e range of f u r n i t u r e m a d e b y f o l k a r t i s t s , as w e l l as i n t e r i o r d e c o r a t i o n s , c a r v e d objects w i t h b u r n t o r engraved o r n a m e n t a t i o n , basket w o r k — w h i c h is o f a p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h s t a n d a r d i n this area — not to m e n t i o n pottery, sculptures, f o l k c o s t u m e s , l a c e a n d r i t u a l o b j e c t s of a r t i s t i c e x e c u t i o n . The exhibits also included paintings on paper serving to decorate w a l l s and representing a field of contemporary f o l k a r t w h i c h has b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y developed recently. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU SZTUKI wydawane P.P. WYDAWNICTWA PAN przez ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N HISTORII SZTUKI, kwartalnik, p o n a d 100 s t r . dużego f o r m a t u , o k o ł o 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 24 z ł , p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 48 zł, r o c z n a — 96 z ł . POLSKA SZTUKA LUDOWA, kwartalnik 64 s t r . d u ż e g o f o r m a t u , b o g a t y m a t e r i a ł i l u s t r a c y j n y . C e n a 18 z ł , p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 36 z ł , r o c z n a — 72 z ł . PRZEGLĄD ARTYSTYCZNY, kwartalnik poświęcony nowoczesnej t w ó r c z o ś c i p l a s t y c z n e j , 80 s t r . d u ż e g o f o r m a t u , b o g a t a s z a t a i l u s t r a ­ c y j n a w t e c h n i c e r o t o g r a w i u r o w e j . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 36 z ł , r o c z n a — 72 z ł . P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 170 s t r . d r u k u , około 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 36 z ł , r o c z n a — 72 sl. K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y , o k o ł o 100 s t r . d r u k u , k i l k a n a ś c i e C e n a 10 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 20 z ł , r o c z n a — 40 zł. ilustracji. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , o k o ł o 130 s t r . d r u k u , l i c z n e p r z y k ł a d y C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a p ó ł r o c z n a 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. nutowe. PRENUMERATA Z a m ó w i e n i a i p r z e d p ł a t y na p r e n u m e r a t ę p r z y j m o w a n e s ą w t e r m i n i e d o d n i a 15-go m i e s i ą c a p o p r z e d z a j ą c e g o o k r e s p r e n u m e r a t y — p r z e z : U r z ę d y Pocztowe, listonoszy oraz O d d z i a ł y i Delegatury „Ruchu". M o ż n a r ó w n i e ż z a m ó w i ć p r e n u m e r a t ę d o k o n u j ą c w p ł a t y na konto PKO nr 1-6-100020 — C e n t r a l a K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i Wydawnictw „ R u c h " — W a r s z a w a , u l . S r e b r n a 12. C e n a p r e n u m e r a t y za g r a n i c ę j e s t o 40'/o d r o ż s z a o d c e n y p o d a n e j w y ­ ż e j . P r z e d p ł a t y na t ę p r e n u m e r a t ę p r z y j m u j e na o k r e s y półroczne i roczne P r z e d s i ę b i o r s t w o Eksportu i I m p o r t u „ R u c h " w Warszawie, W i l c z a 48, k o n t o 2-6-71 w N a r o d o w y m B a n k u P o l s k i m w W a r s z a w i e , u l . W a r e c k a 10. SPRZEDAŻ A k t u a l n e n u m e r y czasopism Instytutu Sztuki P A N w większych księgarniach miast wojewódzkich. są do nabycia Egzemplarze zdezaktualizowane m o ż n a n a b y ć w sklepie „ R u c h u " przy ul. Wiejskiej 14 w W a r s z a w i e . Z a m ó w i e n i a s p o z a W a r s z a w y n a l e ż y k i e r o w a ć do Centrali K o l p o r t a ż u Prasy i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch", War­ s z a w a , u l . S r e b r n a 12. S t o ł e c z n e Z a k ł a d y Graficzne, z . W . W - w a , P o d c h o r ą ż y c h 39. k l . I I I , 120 g A l + k a r t o n b i a ł y k l . I I I , 200 g. B I . N a k ł a d D r u k u k o ń c z o n o w s i e r p n i u 1960 r. 279. 1080 Pap. llustr. egz. C-84. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/3b4a58ac0651f33df366653dad568d15.pdf 8cd56772098d797625081a5b6e4202ed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4490 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1962 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4176 Title A name given to the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.2 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.2 Language A language of the resource ros, ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY I S H PUBLISHED F B Y T H E A R T INSTITUTE N. 2 YEAR BOOK SUMMARY Woźnowski DECORATIVE 1 126 BUTTER L K OF T H E POLISH XVI A ACADEMY R T O F SCIENCES 1962 OF ARTICLES m a s o n r y o w i n g t o t h e s a n d s t o n e a v a i l a b l e i n these parts. This c r a f t w a s handed d o w n f r o m generation to generation i n some families. I n o r d e r t o c a r r y out O w i n g t o the lack o í w o r k s o n decorative butter this h e a v y w o r k , t h e stone masons f o r m e d p a r t n e r ­ m o u l d s , t h i s a r t i c l e i s based , a b o v e a l l , o n m a t e r i a l s h i p s . T h e y m a d e t h e f a m o u s m i l l stones, stones c o l l e c t e d toy t h e a u t h o r i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f P o l a n d f o r e l e c t r i c m i l l s , t r e a d m a l l s a n d w i n d m i l l s a n d also and f o u n d i n m u s e u m s . T h i s m a t e r i a l ( a b o u t 210 stones f o r s h a r p e n i n g a x e s a n d s c y t h e s . T h e r e w e r e specimens) i s enough t o give a general description s o m e w h o s p e c i a l i z e d i n g r a v e s t o n e s a n d crosses a n d of t h e t e c h n i q u e a n d o r n a m e n t a t i o n a p p l i e d . T h e s e others w h o p r o d u c e d b u i l d i n g stone. U n t i l t h e First m o u l d s w e r e used t o shape l u m p s o f b u t t e r a n d t o W o r l d War, t h e Hungarians a n d t h e Slovaks were measure amounts. T h e o r n a m e n t a t i o n is o n t h e inside o f t h e m o u l d and is impressed o n t h e t o p of i m p o r t a n t customers f o r t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n , then came J e w i s h " m i d d l e m e n " a n d , o f course, t h e l o c a l people t h e l u m p o f b u t t e r . T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y used w e r e w h o p u r c h a s e d t h e i r p r o d u c t s a t t h e fairs. Despite p r e s s - m o u l d s ( f i g . 1—4). T o o b t a i n f i g u r e s (lambs, the various d i f f i c u l t i e s experienced b y t h e Łemkowie h e a r t s ) f i t t i n g m o u l d s w e r e used ( f i g . .14), a n d p a t s due t o t h e complicated political situation resulting a n d r o l l e r s w e r e a l s o used f o r i m p r e s s i n g t h e p a t t e r n on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e l u m p o f b u t t e r . T h e u s e o f f r o m t h e t w o w a r s , s t o n e m a s o n r y is s t i l l a t r a d e m o u l d s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 1 9 t h t h e r e t i l l t h i s v e r y d a y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o t n e a r l y so m a n y s t o n e m a s o n s n o w as t h e r e o n c e w e r e . century a n d they remained very popular till t h e outbreak o f t h e First W o r l d War. A t present they are v e r y r a r e l y used, w i t h t h e exception o f m o u l d s Jacek Olędzki — SYMBOLICAL W A X OFFERINGS for d i v i d i n g b u t t e r i n t o portions. These decorative FROM T H E VILLAGE OF KADZIDŁO (KURPIE) butter m o u l d s w e r e used i n n o r t h e r n , western a n d The archaic symbolical ritual o f votive offerings south-eastern Poland. Most o f t h e m w e r e gouged o r has o n l y existed i n t h e village o f Kadzidło ( i n the t u r n e d : a) l o n g ( f i g . 1, 8, .12. 13, 15, P l a t e I ) , b ) s q u a r e K u r p i e r e g i o n ) s i n c e 1957. I t w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y ( P l a t e I I ) . c ) r o u n d (Ic, 3a, b , 4, 10, 1 1 , P l a t e I I I , I V ) , F a t h e r M i e s z k o , w h o h a s a l o t t o h i s c r e d i t i n t h i s d) i n g o t s h a p e d . A m o n g t h e r o u n d f o r m s , t h e r e a r e : area. H e i n t r o d u c e d i t p a r t l y w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of c u p - s h a p e d ( f i g . 4) w i t h o u t d e c o r a t i o n , b o w l - s h a p e d restoring ancient traditions, partly following the ( f i g . 3a) w i t h r i c h l y d e c o r a t e d base, w i n e - g l a s s s h a p e d e x a m p l e Of n e a r b y B r o d o w e Ł ą k i , w h e r e t h i s ritual (fig. 3 b ) , a n d c y l i n d r i c a l ( f i g . 6, 7). F i t t i n g m o u l d s , i s p r a c t i s e d , a n d p a r t l y as a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s c o m p o s e d o f t w o h a l v e s ( f i g . 5) w e r e used f o r a n o t h e r interest i n t h e everyday affairs o f h i s parishioners. purpose. T h e y w e r e n d t f o r m e a s u r i n g b u t t e r , b u t This r i t u a l is p a r t o f t h e ceremony connected w i t h o n l y f o r d e c o r a t i o n ( f i g 14, 9), s h a p i n g f u l l f i g u r e s , the feast o f S t . Roch a n d i s l i n k e d u p w i t h t h e particularly t h e popular lambs. c u s t o m o f blessing c a t t l e w i t h incense, a custom W h i c h i s o b s e r v e d o n t h e m o r n i n g o f t h i s feast. T h e The butter moulds were made of wood b y a actual ritual o f symbolical votive offerings takes carpenter, after w h i c h t h e pattern w a s gouged o u t place i n t h e i n t e r v a l between t h e v o t i v e Mass a n d inside. T h e decorative m o t i f s used a r e t y p i c a l o f the S u n g Mass a n d consists i n w a l k i n g r o u n d t h e the technique used i n decorating w o o d . T h e y a r e altar c a r r y i n g t h e votive offerings three times. The various c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s i m p l e elements. M o t i f s a n d r i t u a l ends w i t h a p r a y e r t o S t . Rodh t o t a k e care features w h i c h a r e characteristic f o r t h e given of t h e livestock. r e g i o n c a n b e o b s e r v e d , as w e l l a s a n u m b e r o f common features. I n t h e moulds f o r pressing butter, T h e v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s a r e h i r e d f r o m t h e „brat h e w h o l e o f t h e i n s i d e w a s d e c o r a t e d : t h e sides s t e w n y " f o r t h e payment o f a fee a n d a r e returned being covered w i t h notches, w h i l e t h e m a i n m o t i f to t h e m after t h e r i t u a l is over. T h e fact that n o t w a s c a r v e d o u t o f t h e b o t t o m , o f t e n w i t h a n o r n a ­ m a n y o f t h e p a r i s h i o n e r s p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e ritual mental border ( f i g . 13). T h e c o m p o s i t i o n Of t h e accounts f o r t h e fact that t h e n u m b e r o f votive o r n a m e n t a t i o n d e p e n d e d o n t h e shape o f t h e m o u l d . o f f e r i n g s i s r a t h e r s m a l l ( a b o u t 50). A l l o f t h e m a r e I n t h e r o u n d forms, a x i a l patterns prevailed (Plate t h e w o r k o f t w o persons. T h e y t a k e t h e f o r m o f a l l IV), characteristic of plant ornamentation, a n d the animals kept i n the farms of t h e surrounding centrifugal patterns, characteristic of geometrical d i s t r i d t , e v e n d o g s ( f i g . 7). w h i c h a r e n o t f o u n d i n ornamentation. I n t h e long-Shaped moulds, the o t h e r v o t i v e o f f e r i n g s because t h e d o g i s r e g a r d e d composition is either horizontal o r vertical. W i t h as a n „ i m p u r e " a n i m a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , there the v e r t i c a l compositions, s y m m e t r i c a l p l a n t patterns are n o symbolical figures representing m a n , his prevail (Plate I ) . I n horizontal patterns (Plate I I ) h e a l t h a n d f e r t i l i t y , a s t h e r e a r e i n B r o d o w e Łąki. there is a tendency t o d i v i d e t h e plane i n t o t w o A l l the v o t i v e Offerings a r e made o f bees-wax. Their parts, each o f W h i c h h a s a c e n t r a l o r n a m e n t o n a s h a p e i s d e f i n e d b y t h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f t h e piece c o m m o n a x i s ( f i g . 3—7). W h e r e f i g u r e m o t i v e s a r e o f w a x , a s i s t h e c u s t o m i n t h e K u r p i e region. used, t h e y f i l l t h e w h o l e s q u a r e p l a n e . However, there i s plenty o f freedom i n modelling The ornamentation o n t h ebutter rollers is usually the details a n d t h e votive offerings a r e n o t so striped, a n d sometimes a rhythmic figure motif e l a b o r a t e as t h e y a r e i n B r o d o w e Ł ą k i . arrangement (Plate V I ) . Krystyna Kaczko — W I N C E N T Y S Z Y M A — FOLK Krystyna Marczakowa — T H E FOLK STONE S C U L P T O R F R O M R A C H O W I C E (Gliwice District) MASONRY O F T H E ŁEMKOWIE The a u t h o r gives a p e n p o r t r a i t o f Wincenty ( b o r n 18186). H e c a m e f r o m t h e v i l l a g e o f R a c h o w i c e T h e poor crops i n t h e r e g i o n i n h a b i t e d b y t h e Ł e m ­ i n Silesia a n d d i d c a r v i n g f r o m his earliest childhood k o w i e ( s o u t h - e a s t e r n p a r t o f I^zeszow Voivodsihip) days. T h e o l d e s t o f h i s w o r k s t h a t h a v e b e e n preser­ made their economic situation difficult a n d this v e d a r e f o u r b a s r e l i e f s o r n a m e n t i n g t h e doors of forced t h e m t o take u p h a n d i c r a f t s , m a i n l y stone Mieczysław MOULDS — O �wardrobes and several crosses i n h i s v i l l a g e ( f i g . 2), which were done a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p r e s e n t century. I n his l a t e r w o r k s , a p a r t f r o m f i g u r e s o f the saints, the m o t i f o f t h e w o r k o f t h e m i n e r is seen several t i m e s i n h i s c a r v i n g s ( f i g . 4, 7). A l l his sculptures a n d c a r v i n g s a r e e x e c u t e d i n soft wood and covered w i t h p o l y c h r o m e . I n a d d i t i o n t o his carvings a n d s c u l p t u r e s , S z y m a also m a d e w o o d e n toys. His w o r k , w h i c h d i d n o t w i n r e c o g n i t i o n i n his own m i l i e u , is n o w t o be seen i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of the Museum a t G l i w i c e . Krystyna Marczakowa — EXHIBITION KOPOLSKA F O L K A R T A T L U B L I N OF WIEL­ The rapid u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e W i e l k o p o l s k a r e g i o n accelerated t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l forms of f o l k a r t t h e r e . M a n y r e l i c s o f t h i s a r t w e r e destroyed d u r i n g t h e wair. T h i s b e i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n , the e x h i b i t i o n o f W i e l k o p o l s k a f o l k a r t , o r g a n i z e d thanks to the g r e a t e f f o r t s o f w o r k e r s o f t h e W i e l ­ kopolska museums, w a s a n e x c e p t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y to become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e l a r g e a n d v a r i e d c o l l e c ­ tion of e x h i b i t s , m o s t o f t h e m o n s h o w f o r t h e f i r s t time. The w o o d c a r v i n g s w e r e o f g r e a t a r t i s t i c v a l u e , particularly t h e w a y s i d e s h r i n e s w i t h t h e h e a d o f the Sad C h r i s t (fig. 2—4). T h e p a i n t i n g s o n glass i n the W i e l k o p o l s k a r e g i o n w e r e m o s t l y i m p o r t e d f r o m the Sudeten f o o t h i l l c o u n t r y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e set of p i c t u r e s o n l i n e n a n d p a p e r t e s t i f i e d t o t h e widespread o c c u r r e n c e o f t h i s a r t i n t h e W i e l k o p o l ­ ska region. A s r e g a r d s t h e f o r m a l a n d i e o n o g r a p h l c aspect, they a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e p i c t u r e s f r o m c e n t r a l Poland a n d i n t h e east a n d s o u t h o f P o l a n d . T h i s П О Л Ь С К О Е is m o s t p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p i c t u r e s b r o u g h t h e r e b y p a i n t e r s a n d p i c t u r e dealers f r o m S k u l s k a ( K u j a w y ) ( f i g . 11, 12). T w o c a r v e d d i s t a f f s o n s h o w a t t h e e x h i b i t i o n ( f i g . 15) s h o w i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e of w o o d c a r v i n g s f r o m c e n t r a l P o l a n d a n d S i l e s i a c o n f i r m t h e thesis t h a t o r n a m e n t a l w o o d c a r v i n g was o r i g i n a l l y a general f o r m o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n a l l o v e r P o l a n d a n d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t i t is n o t g e n e r a l l y f o u n d t o d a y is d u e t o t h i s a r t h a v i n g d i e d o u t i n s o m e areas. T h e c e r a m i c w a r e o n s h o w , m o s t o f t h e e x h i b i t s b e i n g 1 9 t h c e n t u r y pieces ( f i g . 18) g i v e a good idea o f t h e o l d k i n d s o f p o t t e r y once p r o d u ­ ced i n w o r k s h o p s n o l o n g e r e x i s t i n g a n d i n some cases f r o m w o r k s h o p s t h a t a r e s t i l l i n p r o d u c t i o n t o d a y . I t w a s o n l y p o s s i b l e to b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e grey p o t t e r y once nroduced i n this region thanks to reconstructions of o l d forms executed specially f o r the organizers of t h e e x h i b i t i o n b y c o n t e m p o r a r y p o t t e r s ( f i g . 16). Ewa Fryś-Pietraszkowa — CRACOW FOLK POTTERY COMPETITION AND VOIVODSHIP EXHIBITION Pottery, w h i c h w a s once a v e r y widespread craft i n Cracow Voivodship, m a i n l y represented b y richly p a i n t e d glazed ceramic w a r e , began to decline i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 19;h c e n t u r y a n d t h i s process h a s b e e n c o n t i n u i n g e v e r since, t h e n u m b e r o f p o t t e r y m a k i n g c e n t r e s g e t t i n g less a l l t h e t i m e . S e v e n t e e n c e n t r e s ( o u t o f t h e 23 e x i s t i n g ones) e n t e r e d f o r t h e l a s t c o m p e t i t i o n . S o m e o f t h e p o t t e r s used f o r m s t h a t are n o longer used i n practice a n d others made efforts to meet the domands of the modern customer ( d e c a n t e r s , w i n e - g l a s s e s , b r e a k f a s t sets). Н А Р О Д Н О Е И С К У С С Т В О КВАРТАЛЬНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ ИЗДАВАЕМЫЙ ИНСТИТУТОМ ИСКУССТВА ПОЛЬСКОЙ АКАДЕМИИ НАУК № 2 ГОД И З Д А Н И Я X V I Р 1962 Е 3 Ю М Е Мечислав Вожновский — У К Р А Ш Е Н Н Ы Е Ф О Р М Ы ДЛЯ М А С Л А . Ввиду того, что нету е щ ё работ, к а с а ю щ и х с я украшенных форм д л я масла, с т а т ь я основана, прежде всего, на м а т е р и а л е собранном в ц е н т р а х производящих эти ф о р м ы , и на м у з е й н ы х э к с п о ­ натах. Этот материал п о з в о л я е т в ы в е с т и о б щ у ю х а р а к ­ теристику применяемой т е х н и к и и орнамента ( о к о л о 210 объектов). Рассматриваемые нами ф о р м ы с л у ж и л и д л я моделировки г л ы б м а с л а и отмеривания о п р е д е л ё н ­ ного его количества. В н у т р е н н я я п о в е р х н о с т ь ф о р ­ мы была покрыта орнаментом, п р е д н а з н а ч е н н ы м для штамповки п о в е р х н о с т и масла. О ч е н ь часто употребляли ф о р м ы т.н. т и с н ё н ы е (рис. 1—4). Д л я выделки ф и г у р у п о т р е б л я л и составные ф о р м ы ( ф и ­ гурки ягнят, сердца) — (рис. 14), т о ж е у п о т р е б л я л и плоские п л и т ы и в а л и к и , к о т о р ы м и о т б и в а л и о б ­ разец на поверхности готовой г л ы б ы масла. Ф о р ­ мы развивались во I I п о л о в и н е X I X века и б ы л и популярны в п л о т ь до н а ч а л а I мировой войны. Ныне почти совсем в ы ш л и из обихода, за и с к л ю ­ чением формочек у п о т р е б л я е м ы х д л я д е л е н и я м а с ­ ла на определённые порций ( д о л и ) . Украшенные ф о р м ы н а х о д и м на территории с е ­ верной, западной, ю г о - в о с т о ч н о й П о л ь ш и . В б о л ь ­ шинстве с л у ч а е в это ф о р м ы д о л б л е н н ы е и л и т о ч ё ­ ные: а) п р о д о л г о в а т ы е (рис. 1, 8, 12, 13, 15, — Т а ­ блица I), б) к в а д р а т н ы е ( Т а б л и ц а I I ) , в) к р у г л ы е (Таблица H I , I V — рис. l a c , ЗаЬ, 4, 10, 11), г) г л ы б о ­ образные. Среди к р у г л ы х ф о р м в ы д е л я ю т с я ь к р у ж - к о о б р а з н ы е (рис. 4) — не и м е ю щ и е декораций, т а з о о б р а з н ы е (рис. За), и м е ю щ и е богато у к р а ш е н н о е донце, р ю м к о о б р а з н ы е (рис. 36), т и с н ё н ы е (рис. 6,7). Д р у г о е н а з н а ч е н и е и м е л и составные ф о р м ы (со­ с т о я щ и е из д в у х п о л о в и н о к — рис. 5). И м и не от­ м е р и в а л и масла, и м е л и л и ш ь декоративное н а з н а ­ чение (рис. 14,9), м о д е л и р у я п о л н ы й р е л ь е ф ф и г у ­ рок, особенно ф и г у р о к ягнят. Ф о р м ы д л я м а с л а в ы д е л ы в а л и из дерева на столярном станке, затем д о л б и л и внутри и у к р а ­ шали. В п р и к л а д н о м искусстве н а х о д и м детали, т и п и ­ ческие д л я т е х н и к и у к р а ш и в а н и я по дереву. Орна­ м е н т ы состоят из р а з н ы х к о м б и н и р о в а н н ы х п р о с т ы х д е т а л е й . М о ж н о заметить в них мотивы и х а р а к ­ т е р н ы е ч е р т ы , свойственные этому округу — м о ж н о заметить т а к ж е много с о в м е с т н ы х черт. В ф о р м а х д л я прессовки масла у к р а ш и в а л и всю в н у т р е н н ю ю часть, б о к о в ы е стенки п о к р ы в а л и нарезями, на д н е н а х о д и л с я ц е н т р а л ь н ы й мотив, очени часто д о п о л н я е м ы й береговым орнаментом (рис. 13). К о м п о з и ц и я орнамента зависела от ф о р м ы п л о с ­ кости. В к р у г л ы х ф о р м а х доминирует осевая с и ­ стема ( Т а б л и ц а I V ) , х а р а к т е р и з у ю щ а я р а с т и т е л ь ­ н ы й орнамент и ц е н т р а л ь н а я система, которая х а ­ рактерна геометрическим орнаментом ( Т а б л и ц а I I I ) . В п р о д о л г о в а т ы х ф о р м а х орнамент в ы п о л н е н в г о р и з о н т а л ь н о й и л и в е р т и к а л ь н о й композиции. В к о м п о з и ц и и в е р т и к а л ь н о й находим, п р е и м у щ е ­ ственно, симетрический орнамент (образцы р а с т е ­ ний) — ( Т а б л и ц а I ) . В г о р и з о н т а л ь н о й композиции ( Т а б л и ц а I I ) заметна тенденция р а з д е л а плоскости 127 �на две части, в к а ж д о й н а х о д и т с я ц е н т р а л ь н ы й орнамент на совместной оси (рис. 3—7). И с п о л ь з у е м ы е тут ф и г у р н ы е мотивы, з а п о л н я ю т п о л е п р я м о у г о л ь ­ ника. Орнаменты в а л и к о в х а р а к т е р н ы системой полос, и л и ритмическим р а с п о л о ж е н и е м мотивов, п р е и м у ­ щественно ф и г у р ы х ( Т а б л и ц а V I ) . И з исследовании по каменной с к у л ь п т у р е на т е р р и ­ тории Л э м к о в . Ч . 1. К р и с т и н а М а р ч а к — Н А Р О Д ­ НОЕ К А М Н Е Д Е Л Ь Е У ЛЕМКОВ. Н и з к и е с е л ь с к о х о з я й с т в е н н ы е у р о ж а и на з е м л е Л э м к о в (юго-восточная Ч а с т ь Ж е ш о в с к о г о в о е в о д ­ ства) б ы л и п р и ч и н о й т я ж ё л о г о э к о н о м и ч е с к о г о п о ­ л о ж е н и я , заставившего и х з а н и м а т ь с я ремеслом, г л а в н ы м образом к а м н е д е л ь е м г и з - з а б л и з о с т и п е с ­ чаника. Это р е м е с л о у д е р ж и в а л о с ь в н е к о т о р ы х семьях в течение н е с к о л ь к и х п о к о л е н и й . Д л я п р е ­ одоления т я ж е с т е й к а м е н о т ё с ы о б ъ е д и н я л и с ь в „ к о м ­ пании". Они выделывали славные мельничные жернова, жернова д л я к о н н ы х приводов, д л я э л е к ­ трических мельниц, т о ч и л ь н о е камни д л я топоров и кос. Одни д е л а л и н а м о г и л ь н и к и и к р е с т ы , д р у г и е ж е и з г о т о в л я л и с т р о и т е л ь н ы е камни. Д о 1 мировой войны с е р ь ё з н ы м и п о т р е б и т е л я м и п р о д у к ц и и б ы л и венгерцы и словаки, затем п о с р е д н и к и - е в р е и и, конечно, окрестное н а с е л е н и е на р ы н к е . Несмотря на р а з н ы е трудности, в о з н и к ш и е из с л о ж н о й п о л и т и ч е с к о й обстановки, я в и в ш е й с я р е ­ з у л ь т а т о м д в у х войн, каменотёсное р е м е с л о , п о с т е ­ пенно замирающее, с у щ е с т в у е т у Л э м к о в , по с е ­ годняшний день. Яцек Олендзкий — С И М В О Л И Ч Е С К И Е Ж Е Р Т В Ы ИЗ В О С К А В ДЕРЕВНЕ К А Д З И Д Л О ( К У Р П Е ) Архаический ритуал символического ж е р т в о ­ приношения с у щ е с т в у е т в деревне К а д з и д л о (в К у р п я х ) л и ш ь с 1957 года. В в ё л его в этой местности ксёндз-каноник М е ш к о : частично с намерением в о с ­ кресить старинную традицию, частично с л е д у я п р и ­ меру, л е ж а щ и х п о б л и з о с т и , Б р о д о в ы х Л о н к , где этот обряд выступает, а т а к ж е , отчасти, к а к п р о я в ­ л е н и е интереса к п о в с е д н е в н ы м д е л а м п р и х о ж а н . Этот обряд в составе т о р ж е с т в , с в я з а н н ы х с и н ­ д у л ь г е н ц и е й в день св. Р о х а . Н а м е р е н и е м его я в ­ л я е т с я о к у р и в а н и е и п о с в я щ е н и е скота, к о т о р ы е происходят ранним у т р о м в этот день. Зато сам обряд с и м в о л и ч е с к о г о ж е р т в о п р и н о ш е н и я совер­ шается во время п е р е р ы в а м е ж д у обедней а п о з д н е й ( л и т у р г и е й ) и з а к л ю ч а е т с я в троекратном обносе приношений вокруг а л т а р я и з а к а н ч и в а е т с я м о ­ л и т в о й к св. Р о х у , с п р о с ь б о й п о к р о в и т е л ь с т в о в а т ь ж и в о м у инвентарю. П р и н о ш е н и я , о п л а ч и в а е м ы е , берут у „ б р а с т е в н ы х " и им ж е в о з в р а щ а ю т с я п о с л е обряда. М а л о е ч и с л о у ч а с т в у ю щ и х в обряде п р и х о ж а н п р и в е л о к тому, что к о л и ч е с т в о п р и н о ш е н и й н е б о л ь ш о е ( о к о л о 50). В с е п р и н о ш е н и я с д е л а н ы 2 л ю д ь м и . Приношения представляют животных, которых можно увидеть в окрестных хозяйствах, находится д а ж е ф и г у р к а собаки (рис. 7), к о т о р у ю о б ы ч н о о п у с ­ кают п р и и з г о т о в л е н и и п р и н о ш е н и и в д р у г и х м е с т ­ ностях, так к а к собака я в л я е т с я „ н е ч и с т ы м " ж и в о т ­ ным. Нехватает, зато, символов, о т н о с я щ и х с я к ч е ­ л о в е к у , его з д о р о в ь ю и плодовитости, к о т о р ы е в ы ­ ступают в Б р о д о в ы х Л о н к а х . В с е п р и н о ш е н и я с д е л а н ы из п ч е л и н о г о воска. И х форма начертана о б щ и м с и л у э т о м г л ы б ы , с д е ­ л а н н о й по традиционной (в К у р п я х ) конвенции. Трактовка д е т а л е й о ч е н ь у с л о в н а я и н е п о д в е р г а е т ­ ся такому развитию, к а к о е встречаем в Б р о д о в ы х Лонках. Кристина К а ч к о — В И Н Ц Е Н Т Ы ШИМА-НАРОДНЫЙ СКУЛЬПТОР ИЗ Р А Х О В И Ц (ПОВЯТ ГЛИВИЦЫ) А в т о р статьи н а ч е р т а л а образ народного с к у л ь тора, у м е р ш е г о в 1946 году. Ш и м а , р о д и в ш и й с я 128 в 1886 году в с е л е Р а х о в и ц ы в С и л е з и и , з а н и м а л с я ваянием с р а н н е г о детства. Самой ранней, с б е р е ­ ж ё н н о й его работой я в л я ю т с я 4 барельефа, укра­ ш а ю щ и е двери ш к а ф а , а т а к ж е н е с к о л ь к о крестов в д е р е в н е (рис. 2) — с д е л а н ы х в н а ч а л е нащего с т о л е т и я . В с к у л ь п т у р а х п о з д н е й ш е г о времени кроме ф и г у р с в я т ы х , н е с к о л ь к о р а з п о я в л я е т с я тема труда горняка (рис. 4, 7). В с е с к у л ь п т у р ы и з г о т о в л е н ы из м я г к о г о дерева и п о к р ы т ы п о л и х р о м и е й . К р о м е скультур изготовлял Шима дервянные игрушки. У м е р в 1946 году. Е г о т р у д ы , к о т о р ы е н е б ы л и п р и ­ з н а н ы в его собственной среде, н а х о д я т с я сейчас в коллекции гливицкого музея. Кристина Марчак — В Ы С Т А В К А ТВОРЧЕСТВА ВЕЛЬКОПОЛЬСКИ ПОЛЬШИ) НАРОДНОГО (ВЕЛИКОЙ Б ы с т р ы й процесс у р б а н и з а ц и и на территории Велькопольски, привёл к у с к о р е н и ю замирания н е к о т о р ы х т р а д и ц и о н н ы х ф о р м народного т в о р ­ чества. В о е н н ы е д е й с т в и я п р и ч и н и л и с ь к о п у с т о ­ ш е н и ю п а м я т н и к о в этого творчества. В этой с и ­ туации, в ы с т а в к а народного творчества В е л ь к о п о л ь ­ ски, у с т р о е н н а я в е л и ч а й ш и м у с и л и е м работников м у з е е в В е л ь к о п о л ь с к и , даёт и с к л ю ч и т е л ь н у ю в о з ­ можность познакомиться с большими и всесторон­ ним к о м п л е к т о м экспонатов, п о к а з а н н ы х , в б о л ь ­ шинстве, в п е р в ы й раз. В ы с о к и м и х у д о ж е с т в е н ­ н ы м и качествами о т л и ч а л а с ь э к с п о н и р у е м а я с к у л ь п ­ тура по дереву, особенно с т о л б ц е в ы е ( с л у п о в е ) ч а ­ совенки с о б л и к о м И и с у с а О з а б о ч е н н о г о (рис. 2—4). Ж и в о п и с ь на с т е к л е , к о т о р у ю встречаем на т е р р и ­ тории В е л ь к о п о л ь с к и , з а в е з е н а сюда, п р е и м у щ е с т ­ венно, и з районов, р а с п о л о ж е н н ы х у подножья Судетов. Зато, к о м п л е к т к а р т и н на п о л о т н е и на бумаге свидетельствовал о хорошем ознакомлении с этим творчеством на территории В е л ь к о п о л ь с к и . Ф о р м а л ь н о и и к о н о г р а ф и ч е с к и эти к а р т и н ы с х о ж и с к а р т и н а м и из средней, восточной и ю ж н о й П о л ь ш и , ч т о п р о и з о ш л о , повидимому, под в л и я н и е м д о в о з и ­ м ы х сюда к а р т и н д р у г и х х у д о ж н и к о в и торговцев картинами из С к у л ь с к а ( К у я в ы ) — рис. 1 1 , 12. П о м е щ ё н н ы е на в ы с т а в к е 2 п р я с л и ц ы , навя­ з ы в а ю т в своём резном орнаменте к и с к у с с т в у р е з ь ­ б ы из С р е д н е й П о л ь ш и и С и л е з и и (рис. 15). Это п о т в е р ж д а е т тезис, ч т о п р и к л а д н о е искусство по д е р е в у б ы л о , п е р в о н а ч а л ь н о , распространено в целой П о л ь ш е , а его современное н е р а в н о м е р н о е распро­ странение я в л я е т с я р е з у л ь т а т о м з а м и р а н и я этой о т р а с л и в н е к о т о р ы х р а й о н а х страны. Э к с п о н и р у е м ы й к о м п л е к т керамики, состоящий, п р е и м у щ е с т в е н н о , из экспонатов X I X века (рис. 18), п о з в о л и л с о р е н т и р о в а т ь с я в д а в н е й ш е м производ­ стве центров, п е р е с т а в ш и х у ж е п р о и з в о д и т ь , но и т а к и х , к о т о р ы е п р о и з в о д я т п о с е г о д н я ш н и й день. М о ж н о б ы л о о з н а к о м и т ь с я с серой к е р а м и к о й ког­ д а - т о п р о и з в о д и м о й на этой территории, однако, т о л ь к о б л а г о д а р я р е к о н с т р у к ц и и с т а р ы х форм, сде­ л а н ы х п о п о р у ч е н и ю организаторов (рис. 16). Эва Ф р ы с ь - П е т р а ш к о в а — К О Н К У Р С И В Ы С Т А В ­ К А НАРОДНОГО ГОНЧАРНОГО ДЕЛА КРАКОВ­ СКОГО ВОЕВОДСТВА. Г о н ч а р н о е д е л о •— п р е д с т а в л е н н о е здесь, преиму­ щественно, к р а ш е н о й к е р а м и к о й — б ы л о некогда о ч е н ь р а с п р о с т р а н ё н н ы м р е м е с л о м в Краковском воеводстве, а его з а м и р а н и е д а т и р у е т с я с полови­ н ы X I X в. и н е п р е р ы в н о п р о д о л ж а е т с я процесс постепенного з а м и р а н и я его центров. В последнем к о н к у р с е у ч а с т в о в а л и г о н ч а р ы из 17 центров (из о б щ е г о к о л и ч е с т в а 23 д е й с т в у ю щ и х центров). Ч а с т ь авторов и з г о т о в и л а ф о р м ы , к о т о р ы е уже в ы ш л и из обихода, а н е к о т о р ы е д а ж е пробовали н а к л о н и т ь с я к н у ж д а м современного потребителя ( г р а ф и н ы , р ю м к и , сервировка д л я завтрака). � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/8a215a6041c51153a8bc438b70f163c3.pdf fe7442a200406eed9413e7b398339cd0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lud Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PTL Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:4499 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1962 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:4184 Title A name given to the resource Summary/ Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.3 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa 1962 t.16 z.3, s. 189-191 Language A language of the resource ang, ros. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Sztuki PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text P O L QUARTERLY N. 3 I S PUBLISHED H BY F THE ART O INSTITUTE OF L THE K POLISH YEAR BOOK X V I A ACADEMY OF R T SCIENCES 1962 SUMMARY OF ARTICLES Longin Malicki — T H E F O L K A R T O F GDAŃSK-POMERANIA ON T H E BASIS OF T H E COLLECTI­ ONS O F T H E P O M E R A N I A N M U S E U M IN G D A N S K T h e y e a r s of t h e G e r m a n c o l o n i z a t i o n d r i v e a c c e l ­ e r a t e d the p r o c e s s of the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of f o l k a r t i n the Gdańsk-Pomerania region. T h i s process g a i n e d i m p e t u s a s f r o m t h e m i d d l e of t h e 19 t h c e n t u r y . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of m u s e u m s a n d tine d o c u m e n t a t i o n c a m p a i g n i n the a r e a u n d e r r e v i e w p l a y a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t role. A r c h i t e c t u r e is r e p r e s e n t e d b y : cottages, f a r m b u i l ­ dings a n d churches. T h e typical south K a s h u b i a n cottage of the 17th to 19 t h c e n t u r i e s w a s a t h r e e r o o m e d b u i l d i n g of t h e a r c a d e t y p e w i t h a g a b l e roof (most f r e q u e n t l y t h a t c h e d — fig. 2). T h i s t y p e Oi buitaing is also met w i t n a t K o c i e w . I n the n o r t h e r n , coastal a n d c e n t r a l K a s h u b i a n region t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s cottages of s k e l e t o n c o n s t r u c t i o n f i l l e d in w i t h c l a y or u n b u r n t bricks, w i t h either a gable or j e r k i n h e a d roff (thatched). A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k i n d of o r n a m e n t a t i o n a r e p i n n a c l e s of v a r i o u s s h a p e s c u t out of b o a r d s (fig. 5). F a r m buildings stood a p a r t w i t h i n the f a r m p r e c i n c t s . W o r t h y of n o t i c e a r e t h e b r e a d b a k i n g o v e n s c o v e r e d w i t h a s m a l l g a b l e roof a n d r e s t i n g o n s h o r t p o s t s (fig. 7), w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y located near the farmhouse or in the garden. T h e m o r e w e a l t h y , L o w e r V i s t u l a p a r t of t h e K a s h u b ­ i a n region a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g d i s t r i c t s h a d m o r e impressive buildings. In Góraki ( S z t u m d i s t r i c t ) there w e r e l a r g e cottages w i t h m a n y rooms a n d deep a r c a d e s u p p o r t e d b y f i v e posts. I n Ż u ł a w y a n d the V i s t u l a L o w l a n d s , t h e r e a r e o l d cottages w i t h a v e r a n d a i n f r o n t (fig. 6). T h e s u p p o r t i n g posts, a n d the doors a r e s o m e t i m e s o r n a m e n t e d (fig. 8). I n t h e d i s t r i c t s of S z t u m , K w i d z y n a n d M a l b o r k , there a r e a l s o o r d i n a r y cottages w i t h t h a t c h e d roofs. Household E q u i p m e n t The small homemade stools w i t h b a c k s a n d t h e rough o r d i n a r y b e n c h e s t h a t h a v e been p r e s e r v e d testify t h a t the f u r n i s h i n g s of the cottages i n P o m e r a n i a w e r e r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e 200 y e a r s ago. D e v e l o p m e n t began a t the e n d of t h e 18th c e n t u r y a n d w e n t o n d u r i n g t h e 19 t h c e n t u r y u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e f u r n i t u r e u s e d by t h e g e n t r y a n d the t o w n p a p u l a t i o n , a n influence w h i c h i s e v i d e n t i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t s of t h e h o u s e h o l d e q u i p m e n t . U p t i l l t h e s e c o n d h a l f of the 19th c e n t u r y , d o w r y coffers w e r e u s e d , W h i c h w e r e l a t e r ousted by urban furniture. T h e painted ornamenta­ tion on t h e K a s h u b i a n coffers m o s t l y c o n s i s t s of p l a n t motifs. I n p o o r e r homes, t h e coffers were p a i n t e d i n o n e colour. T h e s h a p e of the coffers w a s different i n different p a r t s of P o m e r a n i a (fig. 10 — 15). A p i e c e of f u r n i t u r e t y p i c a l of the K a s h u b i a n homes w a s a painted sideboard (they were also used by o t h e r e t h n i c groups in P o m e r a n i a ) . Ceratain features of h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e s a r e e v i d e n t i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t s (fig 16, 17). T h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e also to b e f o u n d i n w a r d r o b e s , today r a r e l y u s e d (19). O t h e r p i e c e s of f u r n i t u r e t h a t h a v e been p r e s e r v e d a r e stools w i t h b a c k s (fig. 18, 20) p a i n t e d one c o l o u r : r u s t y b r o w n o r blue, a n d b e n c h e s w i t h d e c o r a t i v e l y c a r v e d b a c k s (fig 22). T h e n t h e r e a r e coffer-benches, w h i c h w e r e used a s beds w i t h a seat t h a t l i f t e d up a n d a front t h a t c o u l d be d r a w n out. T h i s k i n d of bed w i t h a d r a w -out front a r e s t i l l i n c o m m o n u s e today (fig 24). T h e l i n e of the b a c k w a l l of t h e s e b e d s is r e m i n i s c e n t of 18th c e n t u r y b a r o q u e f u r n i t u r e . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e r a r e s p e c i m e n s of c r a d l e s (fig. 21) a n d o l d t a b l e s (fig 25) a n d a l s o spoon r a c k s (fig 23) Interior Decoration. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of the 19th c e n t u r y , r o o m s w e r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h p i c t u r e s p a i n t e d on glass, p r o f u s e l y h u n g a l l a l o n g the w a l l s . T h e y w e r e later replaced by printed pictures. T h e p i c t u r e s w e r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h g a r l a n d s of h e r b s . T h e n there w e r e t h e f i g u r e s of s a i n t s , e n h a n c e d w i t h p a p e r f l o w e r s a n d rosettes. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of 20th c e n t u r y , „pająki" c e i l i n g d e c o r a t i o n s of spider-like form, r a d i a t i n g f r o m a c e n t r a l point) m a d e of s t r a w s a n d b l o w n egg-shells w e r e u s e d to decorate t h e rooms, l a t e r they w e r e e n h a n c e d w i t h w o o d e n b i r d s . Pottery. Pomerania has long-standing tradi­ tions a s r e g a r d s pottery (fig 26, 27). T h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s potteries s t i l l w o r k i n g t h e r e a t t h e e n d of the 19th c e n t u r y . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 20th c e n t u r y , i n d u s t r y began to oust tne pottery proctucea i n t h e s e p a r t s , b u t t h e r e a r e s t i l l potteries w o r k i n g t h e r e to t h i s v e r y d a y , o n e i n C h m i e l n o ( K a r t u z y district) r u n b y t h e N e c e l f a m i l y (fig. 41) p r o d u c i n g painted ceramic w a r e and another i n K a r t u z y , c a r r y i n g o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e M e i s s n e r s a n d p r o d u c i n g pottery a c c o r d i n g to the o l d patterns. T n e t y p i c a l o l d c e r a m i c w a r e m a d e by t h e K a s h w b i a n s were large pitchers covered w i t h dark b r o w n glazing (fig 28) o r d e c o r a t e d w i t h p l a n t m o t i f s (fig. 31). S i m i l a r p i t c h e r s w e r e p r o d u c e d i n the L o w e r V i s t u l a region (fig. 32), b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t ornamentation (fig 33, 34). In Góraki and Żuławy, the typical pottery products w e r e l a r g e bowls with verticie ilangeu edges c o v e r e d w i t h b r o w n glazing. T h e K a s h u b i a n s a n d the S l o v i n c y u s e d s m a l l e r b o w l s c o v e r e d w i t h w h i t e g l a z i n g (fig 30). I n the L o w e r V i s t u l a region a n d a t K o c i e w i e , b o w l - l i k e c o l a n d e r s w e r e u s e d (tig. 33). A l l o v e r Gdańsk- P o m e r a n i a d o u b l e pots w e r e v e r y w i d e l y u s e d (fig. 29, 3i2, 36, 37). T h e oldest s p e c i m e n s f r o m the s e c o n d h a l f of tne 19th c e n t u r y w e r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h geo­ m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s a n d t h e n e w e r ones, w i t h p l a n t motifs. T h e p i t c h e r s a n d d o u b l e pots w e r e s o m e t i m e s c o v e r e d w i t h different g l a z i n g s i n s i d e a n d outside (fig. 36). A t t h e e n d of t h e 19th c e n t u r y t h e c e r a m i c w a r e m a d e h e r e i n c l u d e d s m a l l e a r t h e n w a r e w a l l fonts (fig. 42, 43). T h e o l d e r ones w e r e s i m p l e i n s h a p e a n d w e r e c o v e r e d w i t h o n e - c o l o u r glazing, While the l a t e r ones — w i t h b a s - r e l i e f c a r v e d figures — w e r e m u l t i c o l o u r e d . N o n e of t h e o l d toy e a r t h e n w a r e figures once m a d e h a v e been p r e s e r v e d . T o d a y t h e y a r e m a d e a t C h m i e l n o (fig 44). A t the e n d of t h e 19th c e n t u r y , t i l e - m a k i n g b e g a n to s p r e a d a m o n g the potters. T i l e ^ m a k i n g t r a d i t i o n s on the P o l i s h coast d a t e b a c k to m e d i a e v a l t i m e s . Wicker-work. T h i s craft w a s very wides­ p r e a d i n P o m e r a n i a . T h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d w e r e roots, j u n i p e r twigs, s r i p p e d o a k l i n g s a n d osier. Apart f r o m baskets (fig 48, 49), f i s h i n g nets a n d corn m e a s u r e s w e r e m a d e u s i n g the s p i r a l technique, (fig. 47, S I ) . O t h e r w i c k e r - w o r k w a s m a d e b y the c r o s s - w e a v e t e c h n i q u e (fig. 53) o r m a d e of s t r i p p i n g s w o v e n w i t h p i n e roots o r of s t r a w w o v e n w i t h roots or osier. T o d a y , w i c k e r - w o r k o c c u p i e s a n i m p o r t a n t 189 �p l a c e i n the a r t i s t i c folk a r t i n d u s t r y a n d is m u c h in d e m a n d i n t h e t o w n s . W e a v i n g , w h i c h w a s once e x t e n s i v e l y d e v e l o p e d in P o m e r a n i a , d e c l i n e d a t the e n d of the 19th c e n t u r y . T h e s p e c i a l i t y of the region w a s w o o l l e n h o m e s p u n , n a v y b l u e for m e n ' s s u i t s a n d b r o w n , green a n d r e d for w o m e n ' s dresses. I n the w e a v i n g d o n e i n the L o w e r V i s t u l a region, the i n f l u e n c e of the W a i i m i a n a n d M a z u r i a n w e a v e r s c o u l d be s e e n (fig. 54, 55). R e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n that the W a r m i a n a n d M a z u r i a n w e a v e r s w h o s e t t l e d t h e r e o r passed t h r o u g h this region on t h e i r w a n d e r i n g s p r o d u c e d l i n e n a n d r a g rugs T o d a y , t h e r e a r e o n l y a f e w w e a v i n g centres in the K a s h u b i a n region a n d in B o r y , w h e r e rugs a r e m a d e (fig. 56, 58). I n the past, t h e r e w e r e also w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c i n g p r i n t e d l i n e n s (fig. 59). C o s t u m e s , E m b r o i d e r y a n d L a c e . About the 19th c e n t u r y , folk c o s t u m e s w e r e n o l o n g e r w o r n i n t h e region u n d e r r e v i e w . W e h a v e v e r y l i t t l e i n ­ formation a b o u t the c o s t u m e s of t h e e t h n i c groups l i v i n g there, w i t h the exception of the K a s h u b i a n s . T h e b a s i c g a r m e n t w o r n by m e n i n the m i d d l e of the 19th c e n t u r y w a s a l o n g russet coat, w h i c h w a s either blue o r n a v y blue. A p a r t f r o m dresses, the w o m e n w o r e bodices o r j a c k e t s of one colour. E m ­ broidery o n c l o t h i n g w a s c o n f i n e d to t h e g o l d b r o ­ c a d e d S u n d a y c a p s w o r n b y the w o m e n (fig. 60, 62) m a d e of v e l v e t . S i l k caps, o r n a m e n t e d w i t h m u l t i ­ coloured e m b r o i d e r y w e r e also w o r n (fig. 61). T h e gold b r o c a t e d c a p s w e r e no longer w o r n after the m i d d l e of t h e 19th c e n t u r y a n d it w a s not w o r n after the 'middle of t h e 19th c e n t u r y a n d it w a s not long before s i l k e m b r o i d e r y d i s a p p e a r e d too. A m o n g the o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s u s e d i n t h i s region the most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a s the p o m m e g r a n a t e f r u i t . A t the beginning of the 20th c e n t u r y , t h a n k s to the p r o p a ­ ganda conducted by the K a s h u b i a n I n t e l l i g e n t s i a , n u m e r o u s e m b r o i d e r y c e n t r e s w e r e set up, m a i n l y p r o d u c i n g for the towns. W h i t e e m b r o i d e r y w a s found s o m e t i m e s on the c o l l a r s a n d cuffs of women's blouses, a n d a t the b e g i n n i n g of the 20th c e n t u r y it w a s u s e d to o r n a m e n t the h e m of s k i r t s . A t this time there w e r e also costumes e n h a n c e d w i t h c r o ­ cheted l a c e . C r o c h e t e d l a c e w a s a l s o found o n bed­ spreads (fig. 64). (fig. 79). T h e figures a r e u s u a l l y m o v i n g ones w i t h c a r v e d h e a d s a n d d r e s s e d i n v a r i o u s c o l o u r e d rags. T h e c a r o l - s i n g e r s s t a r is l e s s common, the d e c o r a t i o n being v e r y modest. O n the o t h e r h a n d there a r e a l a r g e v a r i e t y of m a s k s for m a s q u e r a d e s . T h e m a s k s a r e m a d e of wood, leather, h o r n , c a r d b o a r d , tow, h o r s e - h a i r , etc (fig. 81, 83, 84, 86, 89) a n d s o m e m a s q u e r a d e c l o t h e s a r e w o v e n f r o m s t r a w (fig. 89). O n e of the a r t i s t i c f o r m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h c u s t o m w a s the v i l l a g e e m b l e m (fig. 87, 88), w h i c h w a s s t i l l found up to the b e g i n n i n g of the 20th c e n t u r y . As regards m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , t h e r e w e r e the o r i g i n a l „Devil's f i d d l e s " (fig. 80). Ornamentation in Wood w a s not f r e ­ q u e n t l y f o u n d h e r e . I n r e l i c s d a t i n g b a c k to the 18th—20th centuries, it i s o n l y found i n some k i n d s of objects; c a r v e d o r n a m e n t a t i o n : y o k e s for d r a w i n g f i s h i n g n e t s (fig. 65), m a n g l e s a n d w e a v i n g boards, the l i d s of d o u b l e pots (fig. 66), stools, butter m o u l d s (fig. 69), a n d distaffs. T h i s a r t i c l e d e a l s w i t h 4 portfolios e n t i t l e d „Relics of the N a t i v e A r t of W e s t e r n P o l a n d " issued s e v e r a l y e a r s a f t e r the F i r s t W o r l d W a r a n d c o n t a i n i n g the l i t h o g r a p h s of the Poznań p a i n t e r Professor W i k t o r Gosieniecki. These lithographs are a valuable docu­ m e n t a t i o n of a r t i s t i c r e l i c s . I t w a s p l a n n e d to issue a fifth portfolio d e v o t e d to the K a s h u b i a n s . I t w a s to b e b a s e d m a i n l y on the collections of M r G u l g o w ski i n a cottage-museum, w h i c h w a s later burnt d o w n , a n d the s u p p l e m e n t a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n that Professor G o s i e n i e c k i e l a b o r a t e d after the F i r s t W o r l d War from specimens found in areas previously i n ­ a c c e s s i b l e to P o l i s h r e s e a r c h e s . T h e fifth portfolio w a s to h a v e c o n t a i n e d 20 llthograps s h o w i n g K a ­ shubian architecture. W e are printing reproductions of s o m e of t h e m . I r o n O r n a m e n t a t i o n . I r o n w a s not w i d e l y used; a b o v e a l l , f i s h h o o k s w e r e m a d e of iron (fig. 70) a n d also w r o u g h t a n c h o r s . S o m e t i m e s , b l a c k ­ s m i t h s tools w e r e decorated, (fig. 73). I r o n o r n a m e n ­ tation w a s used most i n b u i l d i n g : hinges, the i r o n ­ w o r k r o u n d l o c k s , etc. a n d a l s o o n i r o n w a y s i d e crosses (fig. 72), roof c r o s s e s a n d weather-cocks (fig. 71), t h e oldest of w h i c h date b a c k to the t u r n of t h e 17th a n d 18th c e n t u r i e s . A r t i s t i c s m i t h e r y in Pomerania declined at the beginning of the 20th c e n t u r y , o u s t e d b y i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n . Objects and Ornaments from Horn and Amber a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a b o v e a l l by snuff­ boxes m a d e of h o r n , m o s t p o p u l a r a m o n g the K a ­ s h u b i a n s (fig. 75, 76). T h e y a r e s h a p e d l i k e s m a l l horns, c a n i s t e r s , top-boots a n d 'bottles. T h e y are often o r n a m e n t e d . A m b e r w a s u s e d to m a k e j e w e l ­ lery. T o y s — m a d e of wood. T h e y a r e u s u a l l y h o r s e s (fig. 77). M o v i n g toys a r e also m e t w i t h . Art in rites and c u s t o m s . T h e custom of c a r r y i n g the C h r i s t m a s c r i b h a s been k e p t h e r e 190 W o o d C a r v i n g . W o o d c a r v i n g w a s s t i l l Wides­ p r e a d at t h e t u r n of the 19th a n d 20th c e n t u r i e s — i n w a y s i d e s h r i n e s o n posts. A s , h o w e v e r , w o o d d i d not s t a n d up v e r y w e l l to the d a m p c l i m a t e , they w e r e r e p l a c e d by f i g u r e s m a d e of 'porcelain, i r o n or plaster. T h e m o s t t y p i c a l K a s h u b i a n s h r i n e s a r e t a l l crosses w i t h a s m a l l p o r c h - l i k e roof o v e r the figure of the c r u c i f i e d C h r i s t . T h i s figure i s a l s o found on t h e c r u c i f i x e s c a r r i e d i n processions a n d i s m a r k e d for the elongation of t h e body. T h e r e is m o r e v a r i e t y in the figures of s a i n t s (fig. 9 1 ^ 9 6 , 98) a p a r t f r o m v e r y p r i m i t i v e c a r v i n g s , t h e r e a r e r e a l i s t i c c a r v i n g s often after h i s t o r i c a l styles. T h e f o l k c a r v i n g traditions a r e s t i l l k e p t u p today (fig. 95, 96), but religious t h e m e s a r e g i v i n g w a y to s e c u l a r ones. B a s - r e l i e f s are r a r e l y met w i t h . P a i n t i n g . T h e most common here were p a i n ­ tings o n l i n e n a n d glass, p a i n t e d in the 18th a n d 19th c e n t u r y for the p e o p l e by the c r a f t s m e n i n the s m a l l towns. A t the a n d of t h e 19th c e n t u r y they began to g i v e w a y to p r i n t e d religious p i c t u r e s a n d v e r y few of t h e m h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d till t h i s d a y (fig. 102—107). A s e p a r a t e group a r e p i c t u r e s made f r o m w o o d c a r v i n g s glued onto t h e b a c k g r o u n d (fig. 104 t y p i c a l a m o n g the K a s h u b i a n s . Feliks Markowski — RELICS OF THE KASHUBIAN REGION IN T H E LITHOGRAPHS OF WIKTOR GO­ SIENIECKI. Feliks Markowski — THE FOLK ARCHITECTURE OF N O R T H E R N POLAND IN T H E W O R K OF T H E A R C H I T E C T U R E AND R U R A L PLANNING CHAIR OF T H E GDAŃSK T E C H N I C A L U N I V E R S I T Y T h e C h a i r w a s founded i n 1945. S t u d e n t s w h o p a r t i ­ c i p a t e i n i n v e s t m e n t w o r k a r e a l s o e n c o u r a g e d to m a k e t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to the r e s e a r c h w o r k c o n ­ d u c t e d by t h e C h a i r . T o d a y , the C h a i r h a s d o c u m e n ­ tation of the f o l k a r c h i t e c t u r e of v a r i o u s regions of P o l a n d , but a b o v e a l l , f r o m t h e K a s h u b i a n region. �n O / l b C K O E KBAPTAJIbHblH H A P O f l H O E JKyPHAJI H3flABABMbIK N° 3 MajiHi^KHÍí HAPOßHOE M C K y C C T B O r ^ A H C K O r O n O M O P B H H A 3>OHE K O J I JIEKIIMÏÏ n O M O P C K O r O M y 3 E H roflti repMaHCKoro KOJioHM3au,MOHHoro HaTwcKa 5'CKopmiM npouecc 3aiwMpaHMH HapoflHoro MCKyccTBa Ha TeppMTopMM T f l a H C K o r o n o M o p t a . n p o q e c c stot b ^aTwpyeTca nojiOBMHe X I X Bena. B co3ßaBmeMCH m H a ^ a T a n KaiunaHMH T e p p M T o p M M SToro STHMHecKoro oöcTaHOBKe KOJiJieKinro My3eeB cöopa flOKyMeHTOB OKpyra MMeiOT H a cymecTBeHHoe ApxMTeKTypa 3Ha«łeHne. npeflCTaBjieHa: n36aMn, xo3HMCTBeH- HMMM nOCTpOMKaMM, 3flaHMHMM pejiMrno3Horo npesHa3HaneHMH. H a TeppnTopnn lOJKHbix KauíyS BecbMa xapaKTepHW 60BbIM TpëxKOMHaTHbie MeTOflOM, flByxcKaTHOií M36bi, BHGHIHMM C Kpbimeü nocTpoeHHbie c p y - HaBeCOM, nOKpbITbie (npewMymecTBeHHO coJiOMeH- (pMC. 2). 3tot o6pa3eu, M36bi BCTpenaeTca TOJKe b K o u e B e . H a ceBepe, b n o a c e n o 6 e p e ? K b a m u , e H T p a j i b H O M n a c T M TeppuTopMM K a m y 6 HaxoflMTca MHoro M36, nocTpoeHHblX Ha OCHOBe flepeBHHHOÍÍ CKejieTHOÍÍ KOHCTpyKU,MH, KOTOpyK) 3anOJIHHJIM rJIMHOH MJIM HeBbIJKJKeHHblM KMpnHHOM. 3 t M M 3 S b I TOJKe nOKpbITbl flByXCKaTHOÍÍ K p b l mePí, a M H o r ^ a cojiomoü. X a p a K T e p H b i M y K p a i u e H n e M M 3 6 b l «BJiaeTCa K 0 H € K , B b i p e 3 a H H b l f í M 3 flOCOK b p a 3 Hoo6pa3Hbix dpopMax ( p u c . 5). X03HMCTBeHHbie nOCTpOÜKM CTpOMJIMCb OTßejIbHO, xoTH b n p e f l e j i e K p e c T b í m c K o r o flBopa. CpeflM n o c T HOÜ) poeK BbifleJiHHDTCH KynoJioo6pa3Hbie xjieÖHwe nenn, flByxcKaTHOíi K p b i m e M m ycTaHOBjieHHbie HH3KHX CTOJiÔMKax ( p w c 7), pacnojiojKeHHbie b6jim3m noKpbiTbie Ha mjim b c a ^ y . ABopoB paíIOH H M J K H e r O n O B M C J I H M OKpecTHocTeü MMeJí C T p o M T e j i b C T B o 6oJiee nbiuiHoe. H a TeppMTopMM T y p a K y B (iiobht HlTyM) y a c e b H a n a j i e B e K a CTpOMJIMCb M H O r O K O M H a T H b i e M36bl C TJiyBoKMM B H e U I HMM HaBecoM, ynnpaBiuMMCH H a iihtm cTOJiSax. H a TeppMTOpHM X y j i a B M H a f l B M C J I H H C K O M H M 3 M G H H 0 C T M HaxoflHTca a e p e B H H H b i e c p y ß H b i e H 3 6 b i c BbiflBWHyTbiM Bnepëfl KpbijieHHbiM HaBecoM ( p u c . 6). CTOJi6bi m flBepM dbijim Tosce y K p a m e H b i (pmc. 8). B noBHTe HlTyM, K B M f l 3 b I H b , MajIbOOpr HaXOflHTCfl TOJKe npOCTbie CpyÔHbie M36bt C flByXCKaTHbIMM KpbllliaMW, n O K p b I T b i e COJIOMOM. floMauíHua yTBapb: C o x p a H M B U i M e c H caMO«ejIbHbie CTyjIbHaKM (3bIflejIbKM) J'I npOCTbie CKaMbM, 3aJKMTOHHbIÍÍ CBMfleTejibCTByro, b npouijioM hto HCKVCCTBA UOJlbCKOH AKAJ1EMHH HAYK oBopyflOBaHMe M 3 6 Ha noMopbe 1962 OcoSeHHOCTblO c noflHMMaeMoii HacTbK). HBJIJIIOTCH C n a j I b H b i e CKaMbM-CyHflyKM, KpbmiKOM m B b i f l B M r a e M o i ł nepeflHeii PacnpocTpaHeHbi BbiflBHraeMOM c B H y T p e H H e e B X I X Hanajie CTeKJie, rycTo y ö p a H C T B o pa3BemaHHbiMM 3aTeM yKpamajiM T o H H a p H o e UaeT. <ï>opMbi pacKpauiMBajiM cyHflyKOB cyHflyKM pa3Hoo6pa3Hbi b b ojhh pa3Hbix paííoHax ñoMopba ( p u c . 10 — 15). Oco6eHHOCTbK> K a u i y 6 o B HBJiajiMCb KpameHbie 5 y o b e T b i , K O T o p b i e mohcho h3mtm m y . z i p y r a x STHHnecKMx rpynn Ha T e p p M T o p M M n o M o p b a . B mx «eKopaTMB- HOM BblnOJIHeHMM 3aMeTHbI HepTbl CTMJIbHOM MCTOpMHecKoii Me6ejiM ( p w c . 16, 17). 3tm nepThi 3 a M e T H b i y iiiKacpoB, 'laeMbix npe«Ha3HaHeHHbix b nacToamee CoxpaHMJiMCb eme pacKpaiueHHbie km: c oneub oflejKflbi, pe^Ko (3bifljie) (pmc. BCTpe- (pmc. 19). 18 — 20), o«hmm l^bctom. y n o T p e ö J i a e M b i e K p a c mjim r o j i y ö a a . C o x p a H w i H C b y 3 o p H O Bbipe3aHHoii cühhkom (pmc. 22). p»aBO-KopMHHeBaa eine CKaMbM BpeMH CTyjibHaKM fljia ctch. Ha no3flHee Ha nimKaMH. TeppMTopMM noMopba MMeeT orpoMHyio TpaflML(Mio. M H o r w e i^eHTpbi p a 6 o TajiM e m e b KOHi;e X I X B e K a . B H a n a j i e X X BeKa npOMbILUJieHHOCTb HaMajia BblTeCHHTb 3fleUIHMe H 3 ho flejiMH, Bcë-TaKM coxpaHMJiMCb TpaflMi(HK) MaücHepoB, flefłcTByioinne iieH- Tpbi roHHapHoro flejia: oflHH b X M e J i b H e (noBHT K a p Ty3bi) b MacTepcKOM ceMbM H e i ; e j i b (pmc. 41), B b i p a ö a T b i B a r o m M ü KpameHyio KepaMMKy. Btopoü, n p o f l o n JKHBmMii Ty3ax poii m b paéoTe KamyScKOM ÖOJIbLUWe 6a3npyeT KepaMMKe KyBUIMHbl, H a HaxoflMTCH b Kap- CTapwx y3opax. CBoiicTBeHHbi nOKpbITbie C T a - TMnMHecKMe TeMHO-KopMHHeBOM (pmc 28), mjim y K p a u i e H H w e pacTMTejibHbiiw O p H a M e H T O M ( p M C 31). O i e H b C X O J K M C H M M M KyBIIIMHbl, npOM3BOflMMbie B H w j K H e M noBMcjie (pMC. 32), ho c flpyrMM npMMeHeHMeM opHaiweHTa (pmc. 33, 34). PaüoHy TypaKOB m X y j i a B CBOMCTBeHHbi SoJibrnne Ta3bl C BepTMKajIbHbIMM SeperOBbIMM BOpOTHMKaMM, noKpwTbie KopMHHeBOM SMajiMeii. K a u i y B b i m CjioBMHUbi ynoTpeôJiHjiM T a 3 b i noMeHbiiie, noKpbiTbie 6 e jioM r j i a 3 y p b i o (pmc 30). H a TeppMTopMM HMHCHero rjia3ypbK) noBMCJia m b KoueHe BCTpenajiMCb Ta3oo5pa3Hbie p e - uieTa (pmc. 33). H a TeppMTopMM T^aHCKoro n o M o p b a 6bijiM p a c n p o c T p a H e H b i äbomhmkm (pmc. 29, 32, 36, 37). C T a p w e o 6 p a 3 U b i 2-om nojioBMHbi X I X b. yKpameHbi reOMeTpMHeCKMM OpHaMeHTOM, HOBbie mmöot pacTMTejIbHblM OpHaMeHT. KyBUIMHbl M flBOMHMKM MHOTfla ÖbIJIM nOKpbITbl r j i a 3 y p b K > BHyTpM m CHapyjKM (pmc. 36). B KOHrie XIX B. BCTpenajIMCb CpeflM KepaMMHeCKMX M3fleJIMM rjiMHHHbie K p o n M j i b H M U b i (pMC. 42, 43). C a M b i e CTapwe M3 HMX OTJIMHajIMCb npOCTOM CppOMOÜ M OflHOtfBeTHOM pacKpacKOM ( r j i a 3 y p H o í i ) , n o 3 f l H e i i r i i M e c dpnrypHbiM öapejibedpoM, MMejiM MHorouBeTHyio pacKpacKy. He coxpaHMJiMCb CTapwe (pMrypHwe MrpyuiKM w3 rJiMHbi. C o B p e M e H H O MrpyuiKM flejiaiOTCH b X M e J i b H e (pmc. 44). e m eco BeflHHKM flepeBaHHUMH ÄeJio SepejKbM opHaineHT. pacTMTejibHbiii Bflojib n e n a T H b i e KapTMHKM. K a p T M H b i y K p a m a j i M B e HOHKaMM M3 JieHeÖHblX TpaB. ft>nrypKM CBHTblX ÖbIJIM yKpameHbi ßyMaroM m po3eTKaMw. E m e b Hanajie XX B e K a pa3BeuiMBajiM b W36ax n a y K M n 3 cojiomm. fljia H3roTOBjieHMH nayKOB y n o T p e Ô J i H J i n c b a f ł ą a , m3 KOTOpblX BblflyBajIM C O f l e p j K M M O e ( T . H a 3 . „BblflMyUIKM"). flejio Bcero, n o M e m e H M ü : KapTMHKaMM BBejiH KapbejibHoe npejK^e Kpo- nepeflHeń yKpamajiM M36bi BeKa BecbMa xapaKTepeH, n o c e r o f l H a u i H M M ^eHb ^acTbio (pmc. 24). HepTbi m x 3 a f l H n x c j i M H O K HanoMMHaiOT M e ß e j i b X V I I I BeKa (CTMJlb B a p O K K o ) . H a X O f l H M p e ^ K O C T H b i e 3K3eMn j i a p b i KOJibi6ejieü ( p M C . 21) m coxpaHMBUiweca npejKHMe CTOJibi (pmc. 25) m iiojiohkm fljia JiojKeK (pmc. 23). BaTM (npwMepHO 200 jieT c jm i mh i mm TOMy Ha3a/í) OHeHb npMMMTMBHbIM. Pa3BMTMe flaTMpyeTCH, HaHMHaa c K o m i a X V I I I BeKa m npoflOJiscaeTca b X I X BeKe nofl BJiMflHMeM äbophhckom m ropoflCKoń iue6ejiM. 3to BJiMHHwe iiauíJio OTpaateHMe b .ąeKopaTWBHbix fleiajiflx yTBapM. C o BTopoü nojioBMHbi X I X BeKa y n o T p e Ô J i a ï O T C H KpameHbie c y H f l y K M flJia npMflaHHoro, KOTOpbie BnOCJieflCTBMM ÔbIJIM BblTeCHeHbl TOpOflCKOM MeôejibK). Rjin KapTMHOK, HaxoflflinHxca Ha c y H ^ y K a x , ôbijio BO rOß H3^AHHfl X V I P E 3 K) M E — JIohthh HHCTHTyTOM M C K Y C C T B KOHije X I X — b. pacnpocTpaHMjiocb — TpaßMinroHHoe cpe^M peMecjio roHnapoB Ha n o - cpeflHeBeKOBbH. n j i e T e H M e (njieiiëHKapcTBo) Ha noMopbe oneHb pacnpocTpaHeHo. ynoTpe6jiaeMbiM MaTepMaji: kophm. MOJKHteBejibHMK, flëpTbie flyÖKM m paKMTa. K p o M e Kop3MH (pmc. 48, 49), TyT njiejiM pw5ojioBHbie BepuiM m 3epHOBbie MepKM, njieTëHHbie cnMpajibHoíí TexHMKOM (pmc. 47.51). Ä p y r M e M3«ejiMH M 3 r o T O B J i a j i M C b KpecTO- BOM TeXHMKOM (pMC. 53), MJM I 3anjieTajIM JIbIKO COCHOBbiM KopHeM, a M H o r f l a y n o T p e 6 j i a j i M c o j i o i w y , K O T o p y w cnjieTajiM c kophhmh mjm i paKMTOM. Tenepb njieTeBoe 3aHMMaeT nonëTHoe MecTO b xy^oÄecTBeHHOM H a p o ^ H O M TBopnecTBe, H a x o ^ a pwHOK c S b i T a b r o poflax. T K a ą K o e npoM3BOflCTBO, Kor^a-To oieHb pa3BMTOe Ha TeppMTopMM nOMOpbH, nOHTM MCHe3JIO flejio 191 - �b b KoHue X I X BeKa. Oco6eHHocTtio 3TOM paíioHe HBJiaeTCH uiepcTHHOM b CHHHÜ i n s e T , iiieHHbiíi npoM3BO^CTi3a pacKpa- xojict, npeflHa3HaHajica H a MyjKCKyio — ofleíKfly, a K o p M H H e B b i í í , 3ejiéHbiií m KpacHbiü Ha HceHCKMe nnaTbH. B TKauKOM npoH3B0flCTBe Hn?KHero IIOBMCJIH (Pmc. 3aMeTHO 54, 55). 3flecb CKHe TKaHH BapMMHCKO-Ma3yp- M3rOTOBJIHJIM nOJIOTHO COXpaHMJIOCb BJIMHHMe hto jkmb- noflTBepflMJiw, mjim n y T e u i e c T B y i o i n i i e iiine I^flKH). BapMHHCK0-Ma3ypCK0e MccjieflOBaHHH HeCKOJIbKO JIOCKyTKM H (uiMa- TKai^Koro ueHTpOB npon3BOflCTBa Ha TeppMTopMH K a m y 6 m b B o p a x , r ^ e M3rOTOBJIHK)T nOJIOBMKM (pHC. 56, 58). B npomjioM cymecTBOBajiM TaKHte M a c T e p c K M e , n e HaTaBuiMe nojioTHo (phc 59). H a p n f l , B b i u i M B K a , k p y hc e b a : Okojio X I X b. HapoflHbiw Hapnfl pnflax nepecTají uawn CMaTMBaeMoii MecTHbix pacnpocTpaHHTbca TeppHTopwM. HauíM STHHHecKMX rpynn, Ha p a c - cBefleHMH o H a - 3 a MCKjiiOHeHMeM K a m y S o B , oneHb CKynbi. Ochobhoíí nacTbio MyjKCKOíi ofle>Kflbi nojioBMHbi X I X b. H B J i H J i a c b r o J i y 6 a a mjim cmhhh cepinara. JKeHmHHbi KpoMe n j i a T b a hoCMJIM OflHOLÍBeTHbie JIMCpHMKH MJIM KOCpTbI. B b l I X I M B K a HapHfla npMMeHHJiacb n p M yKpaiueHMM 30Jiotom npa3flHMHHbix HíeHCKMX H e n u , O B (pmc. 60—62), M 3 r o TOBJieHHbix M3 S a p x a T a . Hocmjim TaKJKe mejiKOBbie n e n u b i , yKpameHHbie MHorou,BeTHOw BbiuiMBKOM (pmc. — 61). BbiuiMBKa b 30JioTbiM — i^BeTOM n e n i j o B npeKpaTMjiacb 1-OM nojioBMHe X I X b., a B C K o p e n p e n p a T M j i M y n o Tpe6jIHTb UiejIKOByiO BblHIMBKy. CpeflM OpHaMeHTajIbHblX MOTMBOB 3T0r0 paÜOHa BblflejIHeTCH MOTMB n j i o flOB r p a H a T a . B Hanajie X X b., Sjiaroflapa nponaraH^e, npOBOflMMOM K a i I i y S C K O M M H T e j I J I M r e H U , M e M , S b I J I M C 0 3 flaHbi MHorMe u,eHTpbi MymecTBeHHo, BbimMBKa fljia BbiuiMBKM, ropoflCKnx ynoTpe6jiajiacb bopothmkob m M a H H c e T O B paSoTaBiiiMe, npeM- Bejiaa noTpeSMTejieft. MHorfla npn M3roTOBJieHMM sieHCKMx pySameK. B H a n a j i e X X b. yKpamajiM STOÜ BbiuiMBKOM HMXHHe 6 e p e r a k>6ok. B c T p e i a e M T a K s c e Hapaflbi, y K p a m e H Hbie BH3aHHbIM KpyjK6BOM, K O T O p b i e ynOTpeÓJIHJIM MHor^a fljia yKpameHMH noKpbmají Ha KpoBaTM (Pmc. 64). I T p M K j i a f l H o e MCKyccTBO n o flepeay npMMeHHJIOCb OHeHb pe^KO. B COXpaHMBIHMXCH naMHTHMKaX C X V I I I •— X X BB. HaXOflMM e r o CJieflbl TOJIbko H a HeKOTopbix koíí: cpopMbí fljia npeflineTbix. yKpamajiM rpaBnpoB- fljia CTarMBaHMa Macjia (pmc I I p M K J i a f l H o e JKejie30 M3 Hero (pMC. 70), Hbie 69), npacjinubi. M C K y c c T B O b oneHb y3KOM MacuiTa6e. M3roTOBJiajiM, npewMymecTBeHHO, ocTpora K O B a H H b i e «Ropa, M H o r ^ a yKpamajiM K y 3 H e n (pmc. 73). yKpamajiM, npesc^e Bcero, jKene3Hwe M3flejiMH, ynoTpe6jiaeMbie b cTpoMTejibHOM npoM3BOflCTBe: flBepHbie neTjiM, apiwaTypy 3aMK0B, m KpbiuieBbie npMflopoJKHbie 72), cpjiajKKM, flejieHMH CpJiaJKKM BeTpa M3rOTOBJieHbI SiecTBeHHoe scejie3Hbie ycTaHaBJiMBaeMbie HanpaBjieHMH M 3 j e j i n a 3to M 3 — XVIII peMecjio npocTpaHeHHbie cpep,n SaKepKM cpopMy MMeiOT JieHHineM, HHTapH 6yTbiJiKM. TOTOBHT Ha JiouiafléHKM KamySoB pojkkob, BbiBaiOT 77). cTapbie BB. X y , z ; o 3aMM- npoMbimjieHHbiM h h t a p h. M3 (pMC 6anoK, MHorfla üpejKfle 75, 76). b canora c yKpauueHbi. M3 — MacKM c M3roTOBJieHbi oieHb MacKapaflM3 flepeBa, poroB, KaproHa, naKjiM, kohckoto BOJioca m T.n. (Pmc. 81, 83, 84, 86, 89), HeKOTopbie o6pa3u,bi ofleJKflbi cnjieTeHbi M3 cojiOMbi. CpeflM xyflojKecTBeHHbix p e K BM3MTOB STOrO 06bIHaH O C o S e H H O C T b K ) S b I J I BOJIOCTHOM 3HaK (pmc 87 m 88), BCTpenaeMbiM e m e b Hanajie XX BeKa. C p e f l M My3biKajibHbix MHCTpyMeHTOB BCTpeHajIMCb OpMrMHajIbHbie „HépTOBbI CKpMnKM" (PMC. 80). P e 3 b 6 a n o flepeBy. Pe3b6a ynoTpe6jiHJiacb e m e b X I X — X X bb., b npMflopojKHbix nacoBHHX, Ha CTOJiSax. OflHaKO, flepeBO o n e H b HeycToííHHBOe bo BJiajKHOM KJIMMaTe, 3aMeHMJIM cpapcpopoBbiMM, 2 K e jie3HbiMM m rMncoBbiMM cpMrypKaMM. H a K a u i y 6 a x BbiflejiaiOTca npMflopoxíHbie BbicoKMe KpecTbi c npo- CpMJIMpOBaHHblM ctojiBom M KpbiuieM, KOTopaa n p M KpbiBaeT cpMrypKy P a c n a T M H . O n r y p y 3Ty BCTpenaeM Ha K p e c T a x , hocmmbix bo B p e M H K p o c T H o r o Xofla. TyjioBMine cpMrypKM yfljiMHeHo. Bojiee pa3Hoo6pa3Hbi cpMrypKM CBHTbix (pmc. 91—96, 98). H a p a f l y c npMMMtmbhoíí CKyjibnTypoií BCTpenaeM peajiMCTMHecKMe p a CoTbi, MMeromwe HepTw MCTopMHecKMx CTMjieíi. T p a flMUMOHHaa C K y j i t n T y p a e m e MaroTOBJiaeTCH (pMC. 95, 96, 98), ho pejiMrM03Haa Tenia 3aMeHeHa cbctckom TeMOH. P e f l K o BCTpenaeM Sapejibepp. X H B o n w c b . b stmx PacnpocrpaHeHbi MecTax SbijiM KapTMHbi H a nojioTHe m H a cTeKJie, M 3 r o T O B j i e H Hbie b X V I I I m X I X bb. fljia H a p o f l a , ropoflCKMMM peMecjieHHMKaMM. B KOHi;e X I X b. BbiTecHeHbi n e HaTHblMM KapTHHaMM, ynoTpe6jiaeMbiMM B O BpeMH MHflyjIbreHIÍMM. KapTMH ,ÍT,0 CMX n o p pyHHoíi BbiflejiKM COXpaHMJIOCb ( p n c . 102 — OHeHb 107). B — MajIO oTflejib- Hyio r p y n n y mojkho BbiflejiMTb K a p T M H b i noflKJieeHHbie rpaBiopbi Ha «epeBe (pmc 104). 3 T a r p y n n a oneHb TMnMHHa fljia K a i u y S o B . BcTpenaioTca o S p n ^ a x íejiMKC MapKOBCKMÍi — nAMHTHMKM C T A PMHbl K A H i y B C K O H 3EMJIM B JIMTOrPA4>MHECKMX PABOTAX BMKTOPA rOCEHEH,KOrO B c T a T b e o G c y j K f l a i o T c a 4 ajibóoivia n o f l o6iumm H a 3 BeHMeMb „naMHTHMKM OTHeCTBeHHOrO M C K y C C T B a 3 a naflHoíí IIojibiiiM", M3flaHHbie HecKOJibKo JieT nocjie OKOHHaHMH 1 - O M MMpOBOÍÍ BOMHbl, B KOTOpblX HaXO^MJiMCb jiMTorpacpMH n o 3 H a H C K o r e xyfloatHMKa, n p o cpeccopa CH BMKTopa ToceHeuRoro. I^eHHOM flOKyMeHTalíMeM noAroTOBjiaeMbifí 5-bifi XyfloJKHMK 3tm p a 6 o T b i hbjihiot- naMHTHHKOB ajibSoM o6ocHOBaji CTapMHbl. Smji n o c B a m e H cbom pa6oTbi H a KOJIJieKUHHX, COÓpaHHblX M 3 ^ 0 p O M TyJIbKOBCKMM B M36e-My3ee, KOTopbiü noTOM c r o p e j i . ñocjie 1-oií MMpoboíí BOMHbi x y ^ o J K H M K n o n o J i H M J i M M e í o i n y i o c H y H e r o AOKyMeHTauMio o6"beKTaMM, co6paHHWMM Ha T e p p n topmm, paHbine HeflocTynHOií noJibCKOMy M C C J i e f l o BaTejno. AjIb60M (5-bIÍÍ) M M e j I COCTOHTb M3 20-TM JIMTOrpacpMü flOKyiueHTOB KauíyScKoro cTpoMTejibCTBa. — HecKOJibKO paSoT Mbi ny6jiMKyeM. * e j i M K C MapKOBCKHÜ — HAPOAHAH APXMTEKTYPA CEBEPHOIÍ nOJIblIIM B PABOTAX K A O E ^ P B I APXMTEKTYPBI M njIAHMPOBAHMH «EPEBHM TjlAHCKOrO nOJIMTEXHMHECKOrO MHCTMTYTA TapH3aL(MM. B npeMMymecTBeHHo flBMJKyiUMecH m o S b i H a a x . Co- x p a H M J i c a oObinaü uiecTBMH c BepTenoM (pmc. 79). <I>MrypKM, BbicTynaBuiMe b stom BepTene, noHTM B c e r fla no^BMJKHbie c pe3HWMM r o j i o B K a M M , ofleTbie b p a 3 Hoi^BeTHbie jiocKyTOHKM. P e s c e BCTpenaeM odbinaü 192 noxoflaMM. yKpauíaioT CBH3aHHbIX Kacpoflpa 6bijia co3flana b 1945 ro,ay. B mccjigaoT a - BaTejibCKofi p a S o T e npMHMMaioT ynacTMe CTyfleHTbi, r o KOTOpbie aKTMBHO c o T p y ^ H M H a i o T b p a S o T e n o M H B e H - MrpyuíKM. M c K y c c T B O KOTopyío pora, p a c - M3flejIMH. ^epeBHHHwe (pmc. onpe- IToMopbe M3roTOBJieHHbie K)BejIMpHbie M r p y u í K M : m p o r o B TaSaKepKM, fljia ( p w c . 71). C a M b i e p a e T b Hanajie X X b., BbiTecHaeMoe np0M3B0flCTB0M. Bcero, KpecTbi (pnc. H a Kpbinie b XVII Ky3HenH0e HbiMM kojkm, Kauiy6aM. ik e ji e 3 y . n o ynoTpeSjiajiocb npM6opw c o 3Be3floíí, CKpOMHO. 3 a T 0 MHOTO MaCOK, fljiH pbi6ojioBbix c e T e ü (pmc. 65), p y S e j i a fljia KaTaHMH S e j i b a , T K a i n a i e flouieHKM, KpblUIKM flBOÜHMKOB (pMC 66), CnMHKM C T y j I b H a K O B , apMa KoJiaflOBaHMa Kacpeflpe TeKTypbl M3 MMeeTca pa3HbIX b oojibixiMHCTBe M3 ^oKyMeHTauMH CTOPOH TeppMTopMH HapoflHOíí nojIbUIM KauíySoB. — apxwO^HaKO KpoMe y n o M H H y T b i x CTaTefi, b H O M e p e H a x o f l f l T C H : ,,MaTepMaji ^jih 6 M 6 j i M o r p a c p M H e c K H X CBefleHHÍí n o HapoflHOMy MCKyccTBy C^oBMHiíeB" T a f l s y u í a BojiflyaHa, peqeH3MM H a M 3 f l a H w a m x p o H H K a B a H C H e i í u i M X COSbITMM. �CZASOPISMA INSTYTUTU wydawane P.P. WYDAWNICTWA SZTUKI PAN przez ARTYSTYCZNE I FILMOWE B I U L E T Y N H I S T O R I I S Z T U K I , k w a r t a l n i k , ponad 100 str. dużego f o r m a t u , około 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 24 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 48 zł, r o c z n a — 96 zł. POLSKA SZTUKA L U D O W A , k w a r t a l n i k , 64 s t r . dużego f o r m a t u , bogaty materiał i l u s t r a c y j n y . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. P A M I Ę T N I K T E A T R A L N Y , k w a r t a l n i k , p o n a d 170 str. d r u k u , około 100 i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. K W A R T A L N I K F I L M O W Y , około 100 s t r . d r u k u , kilkanaście i l u s t r a c j i . C e n a 10 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 20 zł, r o c z n a — 40 zł. M U Z Y K A , k w a r t a l n i k , około 130 str. d r u k u , l i c z n e przykłady C e n a 18 zł, p r e n u m e r a t a półroczna 36 zł, r o c z n a — 72 zł. nutowe. PRENUMERATA Zamówienia i przedpłaty n a prenumeratę p r z y j m o w a n e są w t e r m i n i e do d n i a 15-go miesiąca poprzedzającego o k r e s p r e n u m e r a t y — p r z e z : Urzędy Pocztowe, listonoszy o r a z Oddziały i D e l e g a t u r y „Ruchu". Można również zamówić prenumeratę dokonując wpłaty n a konto P K O n r 1-6-100020 — C e n t r a l a Kolportażu P r a s y i Wydawnictw „Ruch" — W a r s z a w a , u l . S r e b r n a 12. C e n a p r e n u m e r a t y z a granicę j e s t o 40"/o droższa od c e n y podanej w y ­ żej. Przedpłaty n a tę prenumeratę p r z y j m u j e n a o k r e s y półroczne i r o c z n e Przedsiębiorstwo E k s p o r t u i I m p o r t u „Ruch" w Warszawie, W i l c z a 46, konto 2-6-71 w N a r o d o w y m B a n k u P o l s k i m w W a r s z a w i e , u l . W a r e c k a 10. SPRZEDAŻ E g z e m p l a r z e z d e z a k t u a l i z o w a n e można nabyć w s k l e p i e „Ruchu" p r z y u l . W i e j s k i e j 14 w W a r s z a w i e . Zamówienia spoza W a r s z a w y należy kierować d o C e n t r a l i Kolportażu P r a s y i W y d a w n i c t w „Ruch", W a r ­ s z a w a , u l . S r e b r n a 12. Aktualne numery czasopism Instytutu Sztuki P A N w większych księgarniach m i a s t wojewódzkich: Białystok — L i p o w a 43 B i e l s k o — Dzierżyńskiego 33 B y d g o s z c z — 1 M a j a 17, D w o r ­ c o w a 14 B y t o m — Kościuszki 4 Chorzów — Wolności 13 Częstochowa — A l . N M P 8 Gdań&k-Wrzeszcz — G r u n w a l d z ­ ka 8 G d y n i a — Świętojańska 47 G l i w i c e — Zwycięstwa 31 Grudziądz — R y n e k 13 Inowrocław — Królowej J a d w i ­ gi 31 K a l i s z — Śródmiejska 14 Katowice — Warszawska 11 K o s z a l i n — Młyńska, b l o k 12 K i e l c e — S i e n k i e w i c z a 30, S i e n ­ k i e w i c z a 60 Kraków — Podwale 6 Lublin — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 68 są do nabycia Łódź — P i o t r k o w s k a 102a Poznań — M a r c i n k o w s k i e g o A r m i i C z e r w o n e j 37 21, Przemyśl — Franciszkańska 19 R a d o m — Żeromskiego 27 Rzeszów — Kościuszki 3 S a n d o m i e r z — płk. S k o p e n k i 4 Słupsk — P I . Zwycięstwa 11 Sopot — Bohaterów M o n t e C a s s i ­ no 26 Sosnowiec — Czerwone Zagłę­ bie 23 Toruń — R y n e k S t a r o m i e j s k i 30 Warszawa — Krakowskie Przed­ mieście 7, K r e d y t o w a 9, Pięk­ n a 31/37, B r a c k a 20, N o w y Świat 35, Rynek Starego M i a s t a 22/24 Włocławek — 3 M a j a 25 W r o c ł a w — Kuźnicza 42 Z a b r z e —• Wolności 276 Stołeczne Zakłady G r a f i c z n e . D. W. W - w a , Podchorążych 39. Z a m . 472 P a p . i l U B t r . k l . I I I , 120 g B I ł k a r t o n biały k l . I I I , 220 g. B I . N a k ł a d 1.550 egz. H-76 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/c5fe4452264d7de9c27a8cf76c5aa5d1.pdf ca53df0fabded4c98e41a96aae30f3be Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Etnografia Polska Subject The topic of the resource etnografia, etnologia Description An account of the resource czasopismo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958- Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource IAiE PAN ( d.IHKM PAN) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IAiE PAN Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:1331 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:1230 Title A name given to the resource Suplement do pocztu królów i starszych cygańskich w Polsce / ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1988 t.32 z.1 Description An account of the resource ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1988 t.32 z.1, s.305-322 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mróz, Lech Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN, Instytut Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text „Etnografia Polska", t. X X X I I : 1988, z. 1 PL ISSN 0071-1861 L E C H MRÓZ (Katedra Etnologii i Antropologii Kulturowej UW) SUPLEMENT DO POCZTU KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH W POLSCE CYGAŃSKICH „Przepis przywileju na starszeństwo nad Cyganami tak w Koronie jako i w W. X . Lit. mieszkającymi, Slachetnemu Janowi Nawrotyńskiemu T o ­ warzyszowi pod Chorągwią urodź: Pisarza Polnego Koronnego; A to po śmierci niegdy Janczego Vacuiace, D a ł w Warszawie dnia X I Mca Kwietnia Roku 1668". Ten wpis w księgach królewskiej kancelarii — Sigillata lO.f.85 — jaki udało się niedawno odnaleźć dosyć istotnie zmienił sąd na sprawę cy­ gańskich królów i zwierzchników. W trakcie poszukiwań archiwalnych i przeglądania tychże ksiąg jeszcze jeden wpis dotyczący nadania przywileju na urząd króla cygańskiego został znaleziony. Pochodzi on z okresu niemal o sto lat późniejszego i brzmi: „Urząd Królestwa Cygańskiego w Województwach Małopolskich urodź: Jozefowi Gozdawie Boczkowskiemu nadany", wpis opatrzony jest datą „10 Septembris M D C C L X I " (Sigillata 27, s. 540, poz. 16) К Waga jego nie jest może tak znaczna jak poprzedniego, ale uzupełnia on poczet królów cygań­ skich, jak również wiedzę o podejmowanych przez panujących i władze pró­ bach rozwiązania problemu wędrowców, których nie zawsze i nie w pełni dało się zaliczyć do włóczęgów, ale którzy przemieszczając się pozostawali ciągle poza wyraźnym przyporządkowaniem do określonego miejsca i zależ­ ności w społeczeństwie. Poza tym częste konflikty pomiędzy Cyganami a osiad­ łą ludnością wiosek i miast, niezależnie od tego, w jakim stopniu Cyganie prowokowali takie konflikty i skargi, a w jakim byli po prostu obiektem niechęci, także przyczyniały — jak można sądzić — troski władzom i wyma­ gały jakiegoś rozwiązania. Wydaje się, że akty nominacyjne na cygańskie zwierzchnictwo, a potem królestwo zaliczyć można właśnie do takich działań z zakresu pragmatyki społecznej, że są one praktycznymi próbami podpo­ rządkowania Cyganów, ale także znalezienia formy rozwiązywania i łagodze­ nia konfliktów Cyganów z otoczeniem niecygańskim. 1 Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie, zespół Sigillata. Odnalezione w trakcie prac poszukiwawczych związanych z realizacją problemu węzłowego 11.1 — „Cyganie w Polsce". 20 - Etnografia Polska, t. X X X I I , z. 1 �306 L E C H MRÓZ Niestety musimy ograniczyć się do analizy zapisków zawartych w Sigillatach — oryginały bowiem obu d o k u m e n t ó w nie zostały odnalezione. Sigillata odnotowują jedynie (jak współczesne kancelaryjne księgi wychodzącej ko­ respondencji) skrótowo treść dokumentu, datę i komu został wydany — sam dokument, jego oryginał, przekazywany bywał zainteresowanemu. Nie­ które z nich zachowały się w różnych archiwach, zwłaszcza te, które oblatowane wpisywane byly do ksiąg miejskich czy ziemskich (dzięki temu zna­ na jest pełna treść kilku przywilejów na zwierzchnictwo nad Cyganami). Aby zrozumieć znaczenie obu tych wpisów należy o m ó w i ć pełniej zagad­ nienie starszych nad Cyganami, cofając się w czasie do początków związków Cyganów z Polską. Będzie to także okazją do- zastanowienia się nad kilko­ ma jeszcze innymi niejasnymi lub dyskusyjnymi kwestiami związanymi z hi­ storią cygańskich zwierzchników. Wiadomości o cygańskich starszych — szefach i wójtach — znajdujemy w najdawniejszych dokumentach rejestrujących ich pobyt w Europie. Już w XV-wiecznych źródłach historycznych sygnalizujących pojawienie się Cy­ g a n ó w w różnych krajach są informacje o cygańskich zwierzchnikach. Znaj­ dujemy tam nawet stosownie godne tytuły, jakimi określa się poszczegól­ nych przywódców; nazywani są więc hrabiami, księciami, trafiają się także tytuły królewskie. Dokumenty te mówią o zwierzchnikach, którzy sami są Cyganami. Tytuły zaś, którymi się określają owi przywódcy, mają zapew­ ne — zgodnie z powszechnymi wzorami — podkreślić ich zwierzchnictwo nad innymi. Jak m o ż n a przypuszczać, ma to na celu przydanie także splendoru, mogącego ułatwić uzyskanie zgody na wędrówkę czy zatrzymywanie się w miastach; czasami także m o g ł o wpływać na gościnniejsze przyjęcie, otrzy­ manie żywności lub pieniędzy. Dokumenty, jakie wychodziły z kancelarii królewskiej w Polsce, dotyczą jednakże w większości mianowania zwierzchników spośród nie-Cyganów. Nie jest to wyłącznie polska specyfika, i w innych bowiem krajach odnotowane są fakty mianowania zwierzchnikiem Cyganów kogoś z nie-Cyganów. Ale po pierwsze były to przypadki stosunkowo rzadkie, ograniczone w zasadzie tylko do Węgier i Transylwanii, po drugie zaś tylko w Polsce tradycja nominowania zwierzchników i królów cygańskich jest tak długa, bo trwająca niemal 150 lat, i tylko w Polsce poczet królewski jest tak liczny i tak poważnie traktowana przez władze, właścicieli wielkich dóbr i kolejnych pa­ nujących instytucja cygańskich władców. Mimo iż nazwiska typu „Cygan" spotykamy w polskich dokumentach już w pierwszej ćwierci X V stulecia, czyli niemal w tym samym czasie, gdy notowane jest pojawienie się Cyganów w Czechach i krajach Cesarstwa Nie­ mieckiego, pierwszy znany dokument odnoszący się bezpośrednio do Cyganów pochodzi z roku 1501. Jest to przywilej Aleksandra Jagiellończyka dla Wa­ syla, zwierzchnika Cyganów. Tego samego roku — dla ścisłości — dotyczy jeszcze jedna wzmianka o cygańskim zwierzchniku. Mianowicie Czacki, który poszukiwał — interesując się Cyganami i poświęcając im nawet specjalną roz- �S U P L F M F N T ПО POCZTU KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 307 prawe (1845) — historycznych świadectw i najdawniejszych wiadomości o C y ­ ganach w Polsce, pisze, że odnalazł w „ułamkach rozrzuconych metryki ko­ ronnej" wzmiankę o cygańskim przywódcy Polgarze (Czacki, 1843). Czacki przytacza tylko fragment mówiący o bytności Polgara wraz z jego gromadą * w Koronie. Nie wiemy, czy ó w zaginiony dziś fragment podawał jakieś jeszcze informacje i o czym bliżej traktował. Nikt później z historyków zajmują­ cych się Cyganami nie widział owego fragmentu, w każdym razie nic na ten temat w literaturze nie znajdujemy. Powszechnie natomiast późniejsi badacze traktują informację Czackiego jako pomyłkę, a w każdym razie z ostroż­ nością lub pomijają ją zupełnie . T y m bardziej więc wartościowa jest próba podjęta przez Ficowskiego (1965, s. 14) zinterpretowania zamieszczonego przez Czackiego fragmentu dotyczącego Polgara. Próbuje Ficowski odtworzyć nieznane ustępy tego zaginionego dokumentu; przypuszcza on — a przypu­ szczenie wydaje się zasadne — że mamy do czynienia z listem przewodnim, dokumentem, który gwarantowałby swobodę wędrowania przez ziemie Polski. Jest to tym bardziej prawdopodobny wniosek, że w owym czasie — schyłku wieku X V i pierwszych dziesiątków X V I — wielu monarchów i książąt, na­ wet papież, obdarowało C y g a n ó w takimi listami przewodnimi. Ficowski zwra­ ca także uwagę, że z węgierskich źródeł wiadomo, iż w roku 1496 król Węgier Władysław I I wydał podobny glejt gwarantujący bezpieczeństwo wę­ drówki cygańskiemu przywódcy — wojewodzie Tomaszowi Polgarowi. Nie bę­ dę tutaj przytaczał pełnej próby „dopowiedzenia" przez Ficowskiego nie zna­ nych dziś fragmentów do tekstu cytowanego przez Czackiego — w każdym razie wydaje się to, co proponuje, prawdopodobne. 2 Chciałbym zatrzymać się jeszcze przy tym dokumencie i fakcie wydania przez króla Węgier glejtu Tomaszowi Polgarowi. Idzie o drobny, ale zna­ mienny szczegół, na który nie zwrócono uwagi. T y m królem węgierskim Władysławem I I jest syn Kazimierza Jagiellończyka i brat rodzony ówczesne­ go króla Polski — Władysław Jagiellończyk, od 1471 r. będący królem Czech, a w roku 1490 powołanym także na tron węgierski. Czy jest to szczegół istotny? Wydaje się, że tak. Czacki pisze, że przytoczony fragment metryki odnosi się do roku 1501. W Polsce rok ten jest czasem końca panowania jednego, a początkiem panowania kolejnego króla. 17 czerwca tego roku zmarł Jan Olbracht, do samej śmierci aktywnie uczestniczący w sprawach państwowych (Karpiński, 1980, s. 314), kolejnym królem obrano na sejmie elekcyjnym w Piotrkowie jego brata Aleksandra; koronacja miała jednak miejsce na Wawelu dopiero 12 grudnia. Czy więc król zajęty koronacją, a potem pokoronacyjnymi pilniejszymi zapewne sprawami (np. uregulowanie kwestii unii Polski i Litwy, na której wielkoksiążęcym stolcu zasiadał do czasu powołania go na tron polski), miał czas na C y g a n ó w i Polgara. Wydaje się raczej wątpliwe, chociaż odrzucić takiej możliwości nie należy. 2 Modelski np. stwierdza, że powołanie się tutaj Czackiego na Miechowic Nakielskiego jest mylne (Modelski, 1929, s. 585). �308 L E C H MRÓZ Aleksander sprawami cygańskimi już kiedyś zajmował się, wystawiając w Wil­ nie w maju 1501 r. dokument dla Wasyla, zwierzchnika Cyganów. Nie były to więc dla niego rzeczy nowe (zakładając prawdziwość dokumentu przypisywanego mu i wystawionego w Wilnie — do czego powrócimy). Poza tym chęć okazania królowi czci z okazji koronacji (a Polgar mógł takiego argumentu użyć) przez cygańskiego wojewodę — legitymującego się w do­ datku listem przewodnim wystawionym przez rodzonego brata (Władysława I I , króla Węgier) — mogła spowodować, że król poświęcił tej sprawie czas, i w ostatnich dniach roku 1501 otrzymał Polgar od Aleksandra I doku­ ment, którego fragment odnalazł i przytoczył Czacki. Jednak chyba bardziej prawdopodobne jest, zważywszy jak krótki był czas od koronacji do końca roku, że autorem dokumentu jest Jan Olbracht. Śmierć zastała go w Toruniu, w trakcie przygotowań do zbrojnego uregulo­ wania stale aktualnych k ł o p o t ó w z Krzyżakami. Czas przemarszu wojsk do Torunia i przygotowań do wyprawy nie sprzyjał — jak można sądzić — zajmowaniu się innymi sprawami, mniej ważnymi; a list przewodni dla Pol­ gara i Cyganów na pewno zaliczyć m o ż n a do mniej istotnych dla króla kwestii. Poza tym Cyganom także zapewne nie zależało, by wędrować w re­ jonach objętych czy zagrożonych konfliktem. M o ż n a więc przypuszczać, że list przewodni dla Polgara i jego grupy wystawiony był w początkach roku 1501, jeszcze przed wyruszeniem króla na wyprawę. W każdym razie przynajmniej dwóch z Jagiellonów w tym okresie zaj­ mowało się sprawami C y g a n ó w — węgierski król Władysław I I i Aleksander, a być może także Jan Olbracht. Zdaniem niektórych historyków już Wła­ dysław Jagiełło, a także jego następcy (poprzednicy Jana Olbrachta i Alek­ sandra na tronie królewskim) zajmowali się tymi sprawami. Jednakże nie jest to ani przez Czackiego, ani późniejszych badaczy bliżej uzasadnione. Pod­ stawą takiego twierdzenia — choć być może nie jedyną — są pewne fragmenty przywileju Aleksandra. Oto tekst dokumentu: ..My Alexandr bożeju miłostiu Korol polski Weliki Kriiaz litowski. ruski, zomoytski i in­ nych. Czynim znamienito sim naszym listom chto na neho posmotrit, abo cztuczy jeho wslyszyt niniesznim i na potom buduczym komu budet potřeba toho wiedati. Bił nam czołom Wasiliy starszy Woyt i Cyhany jeho i prosił maestatu naszoho, iżbyśmy ich prozbe i czełobitiju zadosyt uczynili, im wodłuh obyczaju predkow naszych swiatoja pamiati welikich kniezey litowskich swobodu obrasczenia w zemlach naszych darowat i dat raczyli i toho Woyda Wasilia ich izbrannoho potwerdili powinost jemu nakazali, listom naszym inomy z łaski maestatu naszoho sey nasz list dajem a jeho Wasila Woyda Cyhanskoho izbrannoho potwierdiwszy i ustanowiwszy nadajem jemu mocz i prawo Cyhanow suditi i wszelakije meżdu nimi spory rozsużati. a ku lepszomu maestatu naszoho sprawowati i obraczati, a on i Cyhany jeho po wsich zemlach naszych Welikoho Kniazestwa litowskoho i jeho lenostiach mieti majut swobodu i obrasczanie, a swoboda ich wodłuh dawnych praw obyczajów i listów kniażych darowana i dozwolona nami jest sim listem naszym, a na twerdost toho i peczat nasza Welikoho Kniazestwa litowskoho kazalijeśmo priwiti к semu naszomu Listu. Pisan u Wilni w leto 1501 mesiaca maja w 25 deń" (Narbutt, 1830, s. 171-172). Prawdopodobnie zdanie mówiące o prośbie Wasyla, by wzorem przodków �SUPLEMENT DO POCZTU KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 309 na tronie wielkoksiążęcym Aleksander dał im prawo swobodnego wędrowa­ nia po ziemiach księstwa, i końcowe mówiące, iż dana im zostaje swo­ boda wędrowania po całym obszarze księstwa wraz z lennami, według daw­ nych obyczajów i listów książęcych, stały się podstawą opinii o zajmowaniu się sprawami cygańskimi już przez poprzedników Aleksandra. Pewności, że tak było, nie ma — mogli bowiem Cyganie tylko tak twierdzić, by otrzymać od króla przywilej, choć z drugiej strony zdanie mówiące o listach książę­ cych zdaje się świadczyć, że listy takie okazali Aleksandrowi. Zastanawiające jest kilka jeszcze kwestii, jakie w związku z powyższym dokumentem mogą się nasuwać. Po pierwsze o zajmowaniu się sprawami cygańskimi przez poprzedników Aleksandra pisze i Czacki, i Daniłowicz. Jednakże dopiero Narbutt w pracy wydanej w 1830 r. publikuje tekst przy­ wileju — przed nim, jak się wydaje, nie był znany. A można przypuszczać, że tak wczesny i ważny dokument przytoczyliby obaj (Czacki i Daniłowicz), skoro zamieszczają pełne teksty lub obszerne wypisy z dokumentów dużo późniejszych. Druga kwestia jest natury poważniejszej, bo dotyczy wiarygod­ ności rzeczonego dokumentu.' Otóż tekst znany jest dzięki Narbuttowi, ale — jak pisze Narbutt — jest to wypis z Ksiąg Ziemskich Urzędu Hospodarskiego Województwa Trockiego, zamieszczony tam pod datą 12 lutego 1590 r. Narbutt wyjaśnia przy tym: „Wypisano literami polskiemi z extraktu, znayduiącego się w papierach sukc. Zenowicza, w okolicy Zenowiczach, w pow. Lidz[kim]" oraz „Umarł Jakub Znamierowski w roku 1795 [ostatni mianowany przez kancelarię królewską zwierzchnik Cyganów — L . M.], w bardzo ubogim stanie, z przyczyny rozsypanych Cyganów i wyszłych z Litwy, dla wypadków po­ litycznych krajowych. Papiery swoje zastawił krótko przed śmiercią u szlachcica Zenowicza za złotych 50, od którego sukcessorów dostałem dwa przywileje do przepisania, w dodatku pomieszczone pod № 2 i № 6" [mowa jest o Dodatku zamieszczonym na końcu pracy Narbutta; pod nr 2 znajduje się przywilej Aleksandra, pod nr 6 przywilej Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego dla Znamierowskiego (Narbutt, 1830, s. 133, 170). Nie to jest jednak przyczyną, że można zastanawiać się nad prawdzi­ wością owego dokumentu. Wątpliwości budzi — w moim przekonaniu — sa­ ma treść, a dokładniej pewne sformułowanie. Przywilej zaczyna się od zdania: „My Alexandr bożeju miłostiu Korol polski Weliki Kniaź litowski, ruski, zomoytski i innych", kończy zaś: „Pisań u Wilni w leto 1501 mesiaca maja w 25 deń". Aleksander nie był wtedy jeszcze królem Polski, a jedynie Wiel­ kim Księciem Litewskim. Jan Olbrzacht zmarł — jak już mówiliśmy — 17 czerwca, wiadomość o jego śmierci do Wilna nie mogła dotrzeć wcześniej, niż po upływie kilku dni, a i to jeszcze sprawy nie przesądzało. Aleksander nie był jedynym kandydatem do korony i elekcja nowego króla nie odbyła się od razu, a koronacja Aleksandra dopiero 12 grudnia 1501 r. Czy więc możliwe, aby Aleksander użył w wydanym przez siebie przywileju tytułu króla Polski wówczas, gdy król jeszcze żyje i — mimo choroby — czuje się na tyle mocny, że wyrusza na wojenną wyprawę? Wydaje się, że jest to niemoż- �310 LECH MRÓZ 3 liwe . D ł u g o też trwały rokowania Aleksandra i litewskich p a n ó w z panami polskimi, nim dokonany został ostatecznie wybór Aleksandra na króla, a następnie koronacja (podpisanie aktów unijnych polsko-litewskich, warun­ k ó w objęcia tronu i koronacji miało miejsce w Mielniku na Podlasiu 23 października; Bardach, 1980, s. 319-320). Tym samym, jeśli wątpliwość przeze mnie podniesiona jest zasadna, przy­ toczony przez Narbutta dokument może się w ogóle okazać falsyfikatem, spreparowanym na zamówienie którejś z grup cygańskich; może nawet sa­ mego Wasyla, cygańskiego przywódcy. Wykonawca zamówienia mógł nie wie­ dzieć tak dokładnie, kiedy zmarł Jan Olbracht i od kiedy Aleksander zo­ stał królem. Zwłaszcza jeśli zamówienie realizowano po pewnym j u ż czasie panowania Aleksandra; Aleksander zmarł w roku 1506, więc musiałoby to mieć miejsce wcześniej. Chyba że całość, wraz z imieniem władcy, jest póź­ niejszym fałszerstwem. Ostatecznie być może specjaliści od języka mogliby bliżej c o ś powiedzieć o czasie powstania tego dokumentu. Poza tym fałszo­ wanie listów przewodnich i przywilejów przez C y g a n ó w — jeśli wierzyć spe­ cjalistycznej literaturze cyganoznawczej — nie było rzadkością w różnych kra­ jach europejskich. Przykre jest uświadomienie sobie, jak istotnie tym samym zubożamy i tak skąpą źródłowo historię Cyganów w Polsce, ale — nie przesądzając sprawy od razu — myślę, że można mieć wątpliwości co do autentyzmu tego przy­ wileju Aleksandra dla cygańskiego wójta Wasyla. Pozwoliłem sobie poświęcić temu tyle uwagi, ponieważ jest to najstar­ szy — jak się powszechnie przyjmuje — dokument dotyczący Cyganów w Pol­ sce, a poza tym dlatego, że w żadnej z prac historycznych nie dostrzegłem, by na te istotne, w moim przekonaniu, szczegóły zwrócono uwagę. Powyższe informacje o Polgarze i Wasylu są jakby — oprócz zgody na wędrówkę po kraju — zarazem potwierdzeniem ich starszeństwa nad C y ­ ganami. Kolejni władcy również zajmowali się sprawami Cyganów. Jednakże ich działalność ograniczała się — według dzisiejszego stanu wiedzy — do wydawa­ nia aktów, których efektem miało być pozbycie się C y g a n ó w z kraju; naka­ zywano im więc opuszczenie granic, zabraniano dawania schronienia w do­ brach prywatnych, grożono rozlicznymi karami za pojawienie się powtórne itd. Był to bowiem w wielu krajach czas, gdy już Cyganie przestali być przy­ ciągającą wzrok atrakcją, nowością intrygującą swoim sposobem życia, kolo­ rytem etc., a zaczęły się mnożyć skargi i konflikty z ludnością miejscową, osiadłą. Działania skierowane przeciwko Cyganom u południowych, a zwłasz­ cza zachodnich sąsiadów Polski spowodowały liczny (jak ocenia literatura — Na przykład nadany przez Aleksandra I sierpnia 1501 r. przywilej na targi w Zelwie i Iwaczowiczach — czyli wtedy, gdy Jan Olbracht już nie żył, ale Aleksander nie był jeszcze koronowany na króla Polski — jest wystawiony i podpisany przez wielkiego księcia litew­ skiego, a nie króla Polski (patrz: O c h m a ń s k i , 1982, s. 103). �S U P L E M E N T DO P O C Z T U KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH ' 311 choć szacunek bliższy jest trudny) napływ Cyganów do kraju. To jest — jak się sądzi — jednym z podstawowych m o t y w ó w konieczności zajęcia się Cyganami i u nas i szukania rozwiązania drogą postępowania, jeśli nie cał­ kiem skutecznego, to prostego, czyli zakazu wędrowania, postojów, nakazu opuszczenia granic itp. Bardziej aktywnym monarchą w tych przedsięwzię­ ciach był Zygmunt I I August — ostatni z panujących Jagiellonów w linii męskiej. Także za czasów Stefana Batorego (męża Anny Jagiellonki — sio­ stry Zygmunta I I Augusta) podejmowane były działania dla uregulowania kwestii cygańskiej. Nie będziemy się zajmować tymi czasami bliżej — zgod­ nie z zapowiedzią przedmiotem rozważań jest dla nas kwestia starszych i kró­ lów cygańskich i dokumenty z tym związane. Pierwszy znany nam dokument nominacyjny na zwierzchnika Cyganów w Polsce pochodzi z roku 1652, wystawiony jest przez Jana Kazimierza. Ostatni, w którym mowa jest o Cyganach jako banitach, pochodzi z roku 1636. Więc uważa się, że pomysł mianowania przez kancelarię królewską zwierzchników nad Cyganami narodził się gdzieś pomiędzy tymi datami, czyli między rokiem 1636 a 1652 (Ficowski, 1965, s. 31). Przywilej Aleksandra (pomijając kwestię jego prawdziwości) jest zaakcepto­ waniem zwierzchnika istniejącego, sprawującego faktycznie (jak można przy­ puszczać) władzę, niezależnie jaką drogą do zwierzchnictwa przyszedł; kogoś spośród cygańskiej społeczności. Natomiast dokument Jana Kazimierza jest aktem powołania na to stanowisko osoby, co do której nie wiadomo, aby była przez samych Cyganów akceptowana — uznaje się bowiem wśród ba­ daczy, że nominowany był Cyganem (Broda, 1951, s. 349; Ficowski, 1965, s. 33). Wprawdzie przywilej ó w był publikowany przez Prochaskę, a za nim przez Ficowskiego, ale przytoczę go dla kilku kwestii, na które chciałbym zwrócić uwagę: ,.Jan Kazimierz z Łaski Bożej Król Polski. Wielkie Xiążę Litewskie, Ruskie, Pruskie, Mazowieckie, Żmudzkie, Inflantskie, Smoleńskie, Czernichowskie, a Szwedzki Gotski Wandalski dziedziczny Król. Wszem wobec i każdemu z osobna, komu to wiedzieć należy, wiadomo czyniemy, iż chcąc, aby rozproszeni różnie po państwach naszych Cyganie w jakimkolwiek [miejscu] i dla ulegania od podatku Rzeczypospolitej, które więc na nich na sejmach stano­ wione bywają i dla prędszego dościa każdemu uszkodzonemu z nich sprawiedliwości, gdy który jako ex gente otiosa excedít fz narodu próżniaczego dopuszcza się występku] w czym­ kolwiek, saeviendo naturaliter in res et fortunas alienas [szkodząc cudzej własności majątkowi] zostawali porządku, onym ochotnego Matiasza Korolowicza na starszego po ześciu z tego świata ochotnego niegdy Janczego przydać i naznaczyć umyśliliśmy, jakoż przydajemy i na­ znaczamy teraźniejszym listem naszym tak, aby ten urząd starszeństwa nad wszystkimi Cyga­ nami, którzy się gdziekolwiek w Koronie i państwach jej przylegających znajdują i znajdo­ wać będą, ze wszystkimi prerogatywami, dochodami i pożytkami do tego urzędu wedle zwy­ czaju zachowałego dotąd należącymi miał, trzyma! i używał go do ostatnich dni żywota swo­ jego. Co wszystkim, a osobliwie Cyganom w Koronie i państwach jej zostawających oznajmując, rozkazujemy, aby pomienionego ochotnego Matiasza Korolowicza za starszego sobie od nas naznaczonego mieli i znali, dochody na ten urząd i inne powinności przyzwoite jemu oddawali, także we wszystkim jako starszemu posłusznymi byli, nie czyniąc inaczej i dla �312 L E C H MRÓZ łaski Naszej i powinności swojej. Dan w Warszawie dnia X I I miesiąca sierpnia Roku Pań­ skiego M D C L I I , panowania Królestw naszych Polskiego i Szwedzkiego IV roku" (Prochaska, 1900, s. 453-457; Ficowski, 1965, s. 33). Rozpocznijmy analizę od zdania: „Matiasza Korolowicza za starszego po ześciu z tego świata ochotnego niegdy 'Janczego przydać i naznaczyć umyśliliśmy". Jednoznacznie wynika, że Matiasz Korolowicz miał poprzedni­ ka, niejakiego Janczego. C z y Janczy był także mianowany przez kancelarię królewską, nic nie wiadomo; nie wiadomo także, czy był cygańskim zwierzch­ nikiem z wyboru, który tylko przez króla był zaakceptowany, czy też był kimś, kogo król naznaczył — np. za zasługi — Cyganów o zdanie nie pytając. Ficowski wysuwa przypuszczenie (1965, s. 33) - słuszne, jak się wydaje - że może to być ten sam Janczy, który w czasach Władysława I V , poprzednika Jana Kazimierza na królewskim stolcu, był jego nadwornym kobziarzem. Przywilej dla Matiasza Korolowicza wydany został w czwartym roku pano­ wania Jana Kazimierza i w cztery zarazem lata po śmierci Władysława I V . Nie jest to okres długi i choć nie wiadomo dokładnie, w jakich latach Janczy grywał Władysławowi I V , niemniej przypuszczenie o tożsamości osoby wydaje się prawdopodobne i zasadne. Nie wiemy tylko, czy nominacja Jan­ czego na starszego nad Cyganami miała miejsce za czasów Jana Kazimierza, czy jeszcze Władysław I V uczynił go zwierzchnikiem cygańskim. Pozostaje otwarte również pytanie, czy nominacja Janczego była potwierdzeniem wybo­ ru samych Cyganów, czy też nadaniem mu urzędu za zasługi — np. talent wykazywany w grze na kobzie. Człowiek bywający na dworze, który musiał poznać etykietę i zapewne potrafił odpowiednio znaleźć się, funkcjonować na dworze, ogładzony, oswojony Cygan mógł nadawać się do tego, by przy jego pomocy próbować także rozwiązać problem kontroli nieustabilizowanego elementu cygańskiego. Niezależnie czy są to aktysbanicyjne Zygmunta I I Augusta, czy późniejsze próby nałożenia na Cyganów podatków, czy wreszcie mianowanie przez Jana Kazimierza Matiasza Korolowicza, wszystkie są pró­ bami znalezienia sposobu ułożenia stosunków pomiędzy ludnością osiadłą kraju a Cyganami, próbami rozwiązania problemu koczującej ludności cygań­ skiej i wpisania jej w obraz i strukturę społeczeństwa, w system zależności, kontroli i obowiązków. Rozwiązań szukano rozmaitych; mianowanie nadwor­ nego Cygana jest prawdopodobną próbą znalezienia wariantu korzystnego dla władz i — jak być może sądzono — także do przyjęcia przez Cyganów. K i m był Korolowicz — bliżej nie wiadomo; być może — jak przypuszcza odkrywca i pierwszy badacz powyższego dokumentu Prochaska (1900, s. 454), a za nim powtarzają Broda (1951, s. 349) i Ficowski (1965, s. 33) — nazwisko świad­ czy, że był synem poprzedniego zwierzchnika i króla Cyganów [Korolowicz syn korola — króla]. Czy owym „korolem" był Janczy, trudno orzec, ale tak należałoby zapewne przypuszczać, skoro dokument Jana Kazimierza nie wymienia innego imienia zwierzchnika; a zapewne zostałoby podane, gdyby Matiasz był synem innego króla niż Janczy. Następny znany w pełnym brzmieniu dokument pochodzi z roku 1703. �S U P L E M E N T D O P O C Z T U KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 313 Jest to przywilej Augusta I I dla Jana Deweltowskiego, szlachcica — co wy­ raźnie wynika z treści. Zarówno ten dokument, jak wszystkie kolejno wy­ dane (a znane dzisiaj) zwierzchnikami Cyganów czynią szlachciców. Dlaczego tak jest, co było przyczyną zmiany i zaniechania nominowania Cyganów można przypuszczać i powrócimy jeszcze do tej kwestii. W każdym razie przywilej dla Deweltowskiego i późniejsze stały się podstawą opinii, że za Jana Kazimierza mianowano Cyganów, a po tym okresie — w X V I I I w., August I I i kancelaria królewska cygańskimi zwierzchnikami czyniły szlach­ ciców. Wyraża taką opinię Broda (1900, s. 349), a jeszcze silniej zdanie podkreśla Ficowski (1965. s. 31) . Cytowany przeze mnie zapis z roku 1668, odnaleziony w Sigillatach, zdanie to weryfikuje - to nie August I I jest auto­ rem pomysłu szukania dla Cyganów zwierzchnika pośród szlachty; jest nim ten sam Jan Kazimierz, który kilka lat wcześniej powołał na zwierzchnika C y g a n ó w Matiasza Korolowicza. Jan Nawrotyński jest, jak wyraźnie widać z wpisu w Sigillatach, szlachcicem. Dlaczego Jan Kazimierz odstąpił od szu­ kania władcy wśród Cyganów, m o ż n a tylko przypuszczać. Prawdopodobnie nie spełnił on nadziei — albo nie miał autorytetu wśród Cyganów, nie za­ akceptowali go może dlatego, że reprezentował królewską, a nie cygańską rację stanu; możliwe także, że nie spełnił królewskich oczekiwań, zbyt mocno czując się Cyganem. Zastanawiające jest, że zacytowany na początku tej wy­ powiedzi wpis w Sigillatach nic nie mówi o Korolowiczu. Jan Nawrotyński mianowany zostaje na stanowisko wakujące po śmierci Janczego — wydaje się zatem, że Matiasz Korolowicz urzędowania w charakterze cygańskiego zwierzchnika w ogóle nie rozpoczął. Dlaczego? Gdyby nie chciał zwierzch­ nictwa, nie otrzymałby zapewne przywileju na nie. Więc może poddani obrzydzili mu od początku królewski urząd albo okazał się uzurpatorem, a nie synem królewskim; prawdopodobnie nie znajdziemy j u ż wyjaśnienia tych pytań. Przypuszczać jednak m o ż n a — skoro w zapisku z roku 1668 mowa jest znów o Janczym, że pomiędzy rokiem 1652 a datą wydania przywileju Nawrotyńskiemu nie było innych aktów nominacyjnych ani innych królów. 4 Wszystkie późniejsze nominacje na cygańskich zwierzchników wyznaczają osoby stanu szlacheckiego. Jan Nawrotyński jest prócz tego „Towarzyszem pod Chorągwią", osobą wojskową. B y ć może wynika to z faktu, że czasy były niespokojne — najazdu szewdzkiego, wojen na wschodzie i południu kra­ ju, rokoszu — a zatem mógł sądzić Jan Kazimierz, że mianowanie wojsko­ wego daje większą szansę sprawowania urzędu. Przyczyna może być też bardziej prozaiczna, np. że urzędem cygańskim wynagrodzono Nawrotyńskiego za zasługi w czasie wojen. 4 Powołuję się tutaj na pracę Cyganie na polskich drogach, wydaną w Krakowie w ro­ ku 1965. Nie jest mi jeszcze znany tekst przygotowywanego nowego wydania tej książki. Autor zapewne wprowadził zmiany, odstępując od takiej opinii — wiedząc bowiem o przygo­ towywaniu kolejnego wydania uważałem za właściwe poinformowanie autora o odkryciu w Sigillatach. �314 LECH MRÓZ Informacja o przywileju dla Nawrotyńskiego opatrzona jest datą 11 kwiet­ nia 1668 r. — jest to ostatni rok panowania Jana Kazimierza. 16 września tego roku zrzeka sie korony i opuszcza kraj wyjeżdżając do Francji. Miano­ wanie zwierzchnika C y g a n ó w jest więc jednym z ostatnich aktów podpisa­ nych przez tego króla. W tym czasie, gdy Jan Kazimierz wprowadzał innowację w próbach roz­ wiązania problemów dotyczących Cyganów, odstępując od wyznaczania zwierzchnika spośród samych Cyganów i mianując szlachcica, podobne roz­ wiązania znane już były z Węgier. Tam także początkowo akty królewskie były tylko zatwierdzeniem zwierzchnika — Cygana, który sprawował faktycz­ nie władzę. Ale j u ż w połowie wieku X V I , czyli ponad 100 lat wcześniej niż uczynił to Jan Kazimierz, nad lokalnymi zwierzchnikami — Cyganami ustanowiony zostaje urząd starszego, jakby króla, którym mianowana jest osoba stanu szlacheckiego. Pierwszy znany dokument tego rodzaju pochodzi z 1557 г.; przytaczają go zarówno Daniłowicz (1824, s. 96), jak i Narbutt (1830, s. 172). Warto może podkreślić — na co nie zwrócił uwagi żaden z wymienionych ani późniejszych historyków — że królowa Izabela (wdowa po zmarłym kilka lat wcześniej królu Janie Zapolya), która ó w dokument wystawiła i sygnowała, to zarazem córka Zygmunta I Starego i Bony, siostra rodzona Zygmunta I I Augusta i od 1526 r. królowa Węgier. Wygląda więc na to, że Jagiellonowie zarówno w Polsce i Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim, jak i na Węgrzech (Władysław I I , Izabela) sporo uwagi poświęcali sprawie Cyganów, szukając coraz to skuteczniejszych lub właściwszych rozwiązań. Być może — choć jest to tylko niczym nie udowodnione przypuszczenie — właśnie wcześniejsze węgierskie próby i doświadczenia wpłynęły na zmianę podejścia do tych kwestii Jana' Kazimierza i mianowania zwierzchnikiem szlachcica, nie Cygana. Nie pozostał żaden ślad zajmowania się Cyganami przez kolejnych kró­ l ó w — Michała Korybuta Wiśniowieckiego i Jana I I I Sobieskiego; w każdym razie ślad taki nie jest znany. Z a to panujący po nich August I I Mocny powołał kolejno całą gromadę zwierzchników cygańskich. Pierwszy znany do­ kument sygnowany przez tego króla pochodzi z 1703 r. — jest to przywilej: ..urodzonemu Janowi Deweltowskiemu [...] dobrze zasłużonemu, cnotę i wiarę dotrzymu­ jącemu, przy dostojeństwie naszym wakujące starszeństwo Wagabundorum Ciganorum dali i conferowali [...] co do wiadomości wszystkim, osobliwie jednak miastom, miasteczkom, wsiom i ich przełożonym zawiadowcom ubique locorum W[ielkiego] X[ięstwa] Litewskiego] i Xiestwa Żmujdzkiego [...] dla łaski naszej intimujemy też Cyganom wszystkim, aby urodzo­ nego Deweltowskiego za prawdziwego rządcę i przełożonego swego mieli i znali [...] Dan w Lublinie dnia X V I roku tysiąc siedemset trzeciego, miesiąca lipca". (Pełny tekst przywileju podaje Modelski, 1929, s. 583-588, a za nim Ficowski, 1965, s. 37). Deweltowski zostaje więc starszym C y g a n ó w ziem litewskich i Żmudzi. Dokument jest jednak nieco niejasny, odwołuje się do wszystkich Cyganów, by mieli Deweltowskiego za rządcę, wszystkim też podaje do wiadomości, ale wykonywanie urzędu ogranicza właściwie do Litwy i Żmudzi; nie jest �SUPLEMENT DO POCZTU KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 315 to jedyny przypadek niezbyt precyzyjnego ustalenia granic, w obrębie któ­ rych rozciąga się władza mianowanego zwierzchnika. D w a lata później, 10 września roku 1705, August I I powołuje kolejnego zwierzchnika Cyganów: „Wiadomym czynimy [...], że uważaliśmy, iż życzenie J. M. Bonawentury Jana Wiery spełnić należy, abyśmy mu prefekturę nad Cyganami w naszym królestwie przekazali i po­ wierzyli, zwłaszcza zaś w ziemiach przemyskiej, lwowskiej i sanockiej i wszelkich innych dzie­ dzinach naszego królestwa". (Pełny tekst przywileju podaje Prochaska, 1900, s. 453-457, a za nim Ficowski, 1965, s. 37). W dokumencie jest powiedziane, że Wiera ma prawo sądzić i karać, powoływać swoich zastępców, sędziów i zwierzchników niższego szczebla, pilnować praworządności Cyganów, zwłaszcza w okresie targów, i dalej: „nakazujemy objąć urząd w wyżej wymienionych ziemiach, do których to ziem ograniczamy owych przywileje". Instytucja starszego staje się coraz po­ ważniejsza, coraz szerszy zakres uprawnień otrzymuje zwierzchnik; w przy­ wileju jest też mowa o należnych mu daninach i dochodach. Nadal na­ tomiast niejasne są granice władzy Wiery. Z jednej strony powierza się mu władzę nad Cyganami w królestwie, z drugiej powiedziano, że władza jego ograniczona jest do ziemi przemyskiej, sanockiej i lwowskiej. Intryguje też zdanie początkowe przywileju, że mianowanie starszym nad Cyganami do­ konane jest na życzenie Wiery. Czy chciał Wiera, szlachetnymi pobudkami kierowany, p o m ó c królowi w uregulowaniu spraw cygańskich, w łagodzeniu konfliktów i rozsądzaniu ich, czy też znęciły go ewentualne „dochody i da­ niny" — nie wiemy; w nowszej literaturze cyganologicznej sądzi się, że to drugie było przyczyną. Kolejny znany dokument Augusta I I pochodzi z 11 sierpnia 1729 r. Jest to chyba najobszerniejszy, najciekawszy i najwięcej mówiący p urzędzie cygańskiego zwierzchnika akt. „Oznajmujemy [...] wszelkim urzędom wojewodzym, starościńskim, ziemskim, grodzkim i miejskim, tak w Koronie, jako i w Wielkim Xiestwie Litewskim [...] wakujący na ten czas urząd Królestwa Cygańskiego post fata urodzonego Żulickiego [...] urodzonemu Jaku­ bowi Trzcińskiemu dać i konferować umyśliliśmy [...] któren [...] tu w Koronie, jako też i Wielkim Xiestwie Litewskim i innych prowincjach do królestwa polskiego należących, na wszelkim miejscu jako prawdziwy Król Cygański nad pomienionym narodem zażywać i na­ leżytą władzę królewską [...] ekstentować i egzekwować" (Ficowski, 1965, s. 37-40). Dalej jest mowa o tym, iż przywilej na króla otrzymał też Stanisław Godziemba Niżyński, który jednak wyjechał poza granice,? obowiązków nie wypełniał i w dodatku nie sprawował się należycie; nie ma więc teraz prze­ szkadzać Trzcińskiemu w pełnieniu urzędu. Przywilej pozwala Trzcińskiemu mianować także wicekróla, który pomagałby w zarządzaniu Cyganami. Do­ wiadujemy się także, że „w niektórych prowincjach Królestwa naszego znaj­ dują się osoby takowe, które uzurpują sobie [...] tych prerogatyw i wol­ ności, które mieć powinni królowie cygańscy i różnymi sposobami Cyganów agrawują, depaktują do danin i gabetów przymuszają i tym podobne ciężary �316 L E C H MRÓZ i opresje na nich nakładają"; Trzciński zaś otrzymuje prawo ścigania takich uzurpatorów. Z przywileju dowiadujemy się nazwisk trzech kolejnych władców: Żulickiego, Stanisława Godziemby Niżyńskiego i Jakuba Trzcińskiego. Nie zacho­ wały się dokumenty nominacyjne dla dwóch pierwszych; powiedziane jest tylko — w dokumencie dla Trzcińskiego — że Niżyński już od lat kilkunastu nie sprawuje urzędu, a Żulickiego mianowano przecież jeszcze wcześniej. August I I panował w latach 1697-1706 i od 1709 do śmierci w 1733 r. W 1705 nadaje przywilej Wierze, sądzić więc można, że nie od razu po­ woływał kolejnego króla. Poza tym niepokoje w kraju i elekcja Stanisława Leszczyńskiego p o w o d o w a ł y zapewne, że król miał sprawy pilniejsze. Miano­ wanie Żulickiego nastąpiło więc po 1709 г., a Niżyńskiego później, lecz kilkanaście lat przed rokiem 1729, czyli przed nadaniem przywileju Trzcińskiemu. Po raz pierwszy też król mianuje króla. D o t ą d przywileje mówiły o starszych, o zwierzchnikach nad Cyganami; teraz powołany zostaje król cygański i cygańskie królestwo. Przywilej, o którym mowa, wpisany jest tak­ że — pod tą samą datą — do Sigillatów. Dwa lata później, 3 marca 1731 г., August I I wydaje kolejny przywilej „na urząd królestwa cygańskiego", po rezygnacji Trzcińskiego; nominowa­ nym na króla jest Franciszek Bogusławski. Tekst to nieomal identyczny z aktem nadanym Trzcińskiemu, jedynie opuszczone są zdania dotyczące Ni­ żyńskiego. Władza nadana zostaje Bogusławskiemu „aby naród cygański, tak w Koronie, jako i w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim, tudzież i w inszych prowincjach do królestwa należących naszego, w dobrym rządzie i należytej grozie mógł być utrzymany, tudzież aby w krzywdach i sprawach swoich słuszną miał obronę i protekcję" (Broda, 1951, s. 355-356). Pod datą wi­ doczną na przywileju dokument wpisany jest w Sigillatach. Tekst nominacji Bogusławskiego jest tak bliski treściowo i identyczny wieloma sformułowaniami z dokumentem danym Trzcińskiemu, że można sądzić, iż drugi został skopiowany — po wprowadzeniu koniecznych popra­ wek — z pierwszego. Ponieważ pisanie z kopiami do akt jest osiągnięciem, jak się zdaje, dopiero współczesnej biurokracji, a oryginał dokumentu otrzy­ mywał zainteresowany, m o ż n a przypuszczać, że Trzciński rezygnując z urzędu króla zwrócił także otrzymany przywilej lub że w ogóle nie odebrał go po nominacji. Obaj ostatnio wymienieni otrzymali zakres władzy tak szeroki, jak żaden z ich poprzedników; August I I jest więc faktycznym twórcą idei królestwa cygańskiego w Polsce. Znamy dziś cztery dokumenty mianowań na cygań­ skich zwierzchników sygnowane przez Augusta I I (i skrótowo omawiane tu­ taj), z lat: 1703, 1705, 1729 i 1731; przynajmniej dwa więcej musiały — jak można przypuszczać — zostać wydane, choć nie zachowały się do czasów współczesnych. T o nominacje Żulickiego i Niżyńskiego — o których wspo­ mina przywilej dany Trzcińskiemu. Ostatnim przywilejem królewskim mianującym zwierzchnika nad Cygana- �S U P L E M E N T D O P O C Z T U KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 317 mi jest — jak przypuszcza wielu badaczy — nominacja dana Jakubowi Zna­ mierowskiemu przez Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Przytoczony przeze mnie na początku tej wypowiedzi zapis odnaleziony w Sigillatach świadczy, że także August I I I dołożył swoją cegiełkę do budowy cygańskiego kró­ lestwa. 10 września 1761 r. „urząd królestwa cygańskiego w Woiewodztwach Małopolskich" nadaje on Józefowi Gozdawie Buczkowskiemu. Nie zachował się — przynajmniej nie został odnaleziony — oryginał dokumentu. Nie jest także wiadome, z jakiej przyczyny tylko na obszar Małopolski mianowany został Boczkowski. Czy dlatego, że panował inny, dla całego kraju lub tylko dla Litwy król, czy że w Małopolsce było stosunkowo znaczniejsze (obok Litwy) skupienie Cyganów, czy też, że Boczkowski sam może pocho­ dził z Małopolski i tylko tutaj urząd swój podjął się piastować. Dopiero po 19 latach mianowany zostaje następny władca Cyganów, jest nim Jakub Znamierowski — ziemianin, obywatel powiatu lidzkiego. Wy­ stawiony 17 sierpnia roku 1880 przez Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego przywilej nie czyni Znamierowskiego królem — mówi tylko o zwierzchnictwie nad Cyganami litewskimi. Postać tego władcy jest znana bliżej dzięki za­ piskom w literaturze: zwłaszcza Narbutt poświęcił mu sporo miejsca (Narbutt, 1830, s. 131-133). Wiemy więc, że Znamierowski utrzymywał bliskie kontakty z Cyganami, handlował z nimi końmi, później też wędrował, głów­ nie po ziemiach litewskich; przynajmniej więc jest jasne, dlaczego mianowanie go dotyczy Litwy, a nie całego obszaru kraju. Znamierowski panował sto­ sunkowo długo, bo do śmierci w roku 1795. Jest to zarazem ostatni rok panowania Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego, ostatniego króla, więc i mia­ nować następców nie było komu. Zresztą czas nie był po temu — rozbiór Polski ważniejsze stawiał zapewne problemy, niż szukanie następnego zwierzch­ nika dla Cyganów. Wraz ze śmiercią Znamierowskiego zakończył się wyjąt­ kowo konsekwentnie realizowany program prób podporządkowania Cyganów władzy królewskiej za pośrednictwem mianowanego przez króla zwierzchnika. Trwał przez lat 143 — od chwili, gdy Jan Kazimierz nadał przywilejem urząd Korolowiczowi w roku 1652, do śmierci Znamierowskiego w roku 1795. (Od momentu mianowania pierwszego nie-Cygana na ten urząd, szlach­ cica, w roku 1668, minęło lat 127). Czas królów i zwierzchników cygańskich mianowanych centralnie przez panującego minął. „Wszelako po śmierci Znamierowskiego. Cygani pozostali jeszcze w kraju, obrali sobie za naczelnika szlachcica Miłośnickiego. rodem z lidzkiego powiatu. Który maić) mając powagę, uwijał się z Cyganami w Litwie, najczęściej widziany byt w lidzkim. Inni mówią, że dla zlej konduity i pijaństwa, zrzucony został z urzędu, drudzy, że wyszedł z hordą do Turcji; ostatni raz widziano go około roku 1799 w Ejszyszkach" (Narbutt, 1830, s. 134). O podobnych przypadkach obierania przez Cyganów za zwierzchnika kogoś z miejscowej szlachty pisze także Pol: „Litewscy i pińscy Cygani obierali sobie króla, który ich rządził i sądził. Królem takim wszakże mógł �318 L E C H MRÓZ być tylko szlachcic dobrze osiadły, który nad nimi samowładnie panował, a bronił ich tam, gdzie wyjęci spod prawa Cyganie- potrzebowali opieki prawa" (Pol, 1870, s. 147). Jak powszechna była to praktyka i czym tłu­ maczyć takie postępowanie Cyganów, nie wiemy. Być może czynili tak Cy­ ganie z grup osiadłych lub nawet koczujących po to, by — niezależnie od własnej hierarchii i własnej starszyzny — mieć kogoś, kto m o ż e bardziej wykształcony lub obyty z prawem krajowym mógłby pełnić rolę ich adwo­ kata, obrońcy, pośrednika. Jest to dość prawdopodobna motywacja, znana zresztą i z rozwiązań w innych krajach. Ostatnia wiadomość o królu cygańskim w Koronie pochodzi z roku 1811. Nie wiemy na ile jest to informacja prawdziwa, tym bardziej że nie potwier­ dza jej ani Czacki, Daniłowicz ani Narbutt, specjalnie przecież zajmujący się dziejami Cyganów, ani żaden z późniejszych historyków. Mianowicie w Dodatku do 54 numeru „Gazety Lwowskiej" (z dn. 4 X 1811 r.) po zda­ niach mówiących o cygańskich zwierzchnikach znajdujemy stwierdzenie: „ostatnim takim królem w Polsce był niejaki Babiński". Być może chodzi tutaj o takiego samego zwierzchnika, jak Miłośnicki lub wspomniani przez Pola. Małe bowiem prawdopodobieństwo, by go mianował Stanisław August Poniatowski; zapewne zachowałby się jakiś dokument lub wzmianka u któ­ regoś z dawnych pamiętnikarzy czy badaczy. Tak oto doszliśmy do końca listy zwierzchników — starszych i królów cygańskich, naznaczonych na ten urząd z woli panującego i kancelarii kró­ lewskiej. Nie zamyka to w ogóle listy cygańskich władców. Jak wynika z omawianych wyżej dokumentów lub wpisów w Sigillatach, nie wszyscy nominowani byli władcami wszystkich Cyganów Polski i Wiel­ kiego Księstwa Litewskiego; niektórzy byli tylko zwierzchnikami lub królami „dzielnicowymi" — Deweltowski, Wiera, Boczkowski i Znamierowski. (Na kwestię tę zwraca uwagę Broda, 1951, s. 350). Być może większa była licz­ ba takich regionalnych starszych i królów mianowanych przez kancelarię królewską — brak jednak o tym wiadomości. Natomiast Wiadomo, że niezależnie od zwierzchników mianowanych przez króla właściciele niektórych dóbr prywatnych nominowali własnych zwierzch­ ników cygańskich. W tym przypadku władza mianowanego ograniczała się do dóbr tego. kto go mianował. Poza tym cechą charakterystyczną jest, że mianowanymi byli Cyganie — jest to więc nie tyle może powołanie zwierzchnika, ile zatwierdzenie ná stanowisku kogoś, kto i tak wyborem czy podporządkowaniem sobie C y g a n ó w znajdował się na górze hierarchii, pia­ stując funkcję przywódcy. Dotyczy to dóbr Sanguszków i Radziwiłłów, le­ żących na terenach Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego (Broda, 1951, s. 356; Narbutt, 1830, s. 128). Tematem tym nie będziemy zajmowali się tutaj bli­ żej jako odrębnym rozdziałem historii Cyganów. Prawdopodobnie zostanie on podjęty po zakończeniu kwerend archiwalnych, prowadzonych obecnie w związku z realizowanymi badaniami węzłowymi. Tak więc aktualną listę cygańskich zwierzchników - starszych i królów mianowanych przez kancelarię królewską przedstawia tabelka. �319 S U P L E M E N T DO P O C Z T U KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH Nazwisko Rok nominacji Przywilej nadał Janczy Matiasz Korolowicz ? , ? 1652 Jan Kazimierz Jan Nawrotyński 1668 Jan Kazimierz Jan Deweltowski Bonawentura Jan Wiera 1703 1705 August II August II ? * Żulicki Stanisław Godziemba Niżyński Jakub Trzciński 7 1729 August II August II August II Franciszek Bogusławski 1731 August II Józef Gozdawa Boczkowski Jakub Znamierowski 1761 1780 August III Stanisław August Poniatowski Ziemie poddane urzędowi ? Korona i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie Korona i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie Lilwa i Żmudź Sanockie, Lwowskie, Przemyskie 1 ? Korona i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie Korona i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie Małopolska Litwa To, co wiadome jest o cygańskich zwierzchnikach, o niemal 150-letniej praktyce mianowania ich, to wiedza raczej skromna. Nie wiemy niemal nic 0 faktycznym wdrażaniu królewskich aktów, o sprawowaniu urzędu przez poszczególnych starszych i królów, o motywach tak długiego i konsekwen­ tnego podejmowania prób podporządkowania Cyganów za' pośrednictwem króla-szlachcica. Wiedza na ten temat jest właściwie w powijakach; miejmy nadzieję, że poznawanie zawartości archiwów stopniowo wzbogaci znajomość tego zagadnienia. C h o ć tak rzadko historycy dotykają tematu 'Cyganie', że na znaczniejsze pogłębienie znajomości ich historii przyjdzie zapewne jeszcze długo czekać. Jeśli idzie o przyczynę, a także żywotność idei mianowania zwierzchni­ kiem C y g a n ó w kogoś ze szlachty, warto zwrócić uwagę na tezę Brody, że były to próby analogiczne do mianowania na niektóre ważne funkcje w spo­ łeczności żydowskiej szlachciców — np. na urząd podwojewodziego, sędziego żydowskiego, pisarza żydowskiego. Wynikało to z chęci zmniejszenia auto­ nomii Ż y d ó w i pełniejszego ich podporządkowania interesom państwa i pa­ nującego (Broda, 1951, s. 352). Podobnie istotna wydaje się do zweryfikowania opinia na temat ciemię­ żenia poddanych przez mianowanych starszych, intratności królewskiego urzę­ du etc. We wszystkich ze znanych przywilejów jest istotnie mowa o przy­ należnych urzędowi zwierzchnika dochodach, daninach i „prerogatywach". Jeżeli jednak ich egzekwowanie było podobne niezbyt chyba dużej gorliwości 1 wierności urzędowi kolejnych zwierzchników, to nie wydaje się, by nad­ miernie poddani odczuli ciężary. Jedynie dwa dokumenty (dla Trzcińskiego — z roku 1729 i dla Bogusławskiego — z roku 1731) pozwalają wnosić, że niekiedy zwierzchnictwo nad Cyganami m o g ł o być dochodowe — wynika to z zawartego w nich ostrzeżenia przed uzurpatorami, bezprawnie wykorzystu- �320 LECH MRÓZ jącymi Cyganów i nałożonego na obu cygańskich królów obowiązku ściga­ nia ich. Nigdzie jednak i przez żadnego z dawnych i współczesnych ba­ daczy nie zostały odnalezione jakiekolwiek zapiski czy informacje upoważ­ niające do twierdzenia, że zabiegano o urząd zwierzchnika Cyganów jako dający znaczne profity i że owi zwierzchnicy głównie własny zysk mieli na względzie. Opinia taka dosyć jednoznacznie ferowana jest przez Ficowskiego (1965, s. 35, 37, 40-41); odnoszę jednak wrażenie, że największy współczesny znawca Cyganów dał się zasugerować zdaniu Brody (1951, s. 349, 351-354) — specjalisty przecież, historyka, z którego pracy korzystał. Rozprawa Brody opublikowana została w roku 1951, do właściwego tonu należało wówczas generalne potępienie warstwy „obcej klasowo"; kanonem było pisanie o przed­ stawicielach szlachty jako o krwiopijcach, wyzyskiwaczach, pasożytach itd. — generalnie z samej istoty bycia szlachcicem. Zdania swojego Broda nie uza­ sadnia — d o w ó d tkwi w samej przynależności starszych i królów do stanu szlacheckiego. Nie chcę twierdzić, że było dokładnie na odwrót, że pełniący urzędy zwierzchników zawsze kierowali się dobrem poddanych i zawsze in­ teres ich i państwowy, a nie swój, mieli na uwadze. Póki jednak zdanie 0 powszechnym wyzyskiwaniu Cyganów przez mianowanych nad nimi zwierzchników nie znajdzie potwierdzenia w źródłach, póki nie zacznie wy­ nikać z materiałów historycznych, a nie pryncypiów pozanaukowych, poty jest twierdzeniem nieprawdziwym. Przywileje mówią nie tylko o daninach 1 „prerogatywach", ale także o obowiązkach zwierzchników wobec poddanych, o bronieniu ich przed wyzyskiwaniem. Niemniej nie stało się to bodźcem do rozważań o ewentualnych społecznych korzyściach takiego urzędu; ten wątek badacze pominęli. Powyższy tekst traktuje w zasadzie o cygańskich zwierzchnikach w Polsce, zarazem jednak sygnalizuje pewne istotne kwestie związane z położeniem C y ­ ganów w Polsce, ich statusem i polityką wobec nich. Współczesna sytuacja Cyganów, stosunek do nich, wyobrażenia na ich temat, zmiany, jakie do­ konały się w ich kulturze w czasie kilkuwiekowego pobytu w Polsce, się­ gają swymi korzeniami — przynajmniej po części — owych odległych pozor­ nie czasów, X V I I - X V I I I w. Tam należy, jak sądzę, szukać wyjaśnienia póź­ niejszych opinii o Cyganach i stereotypowych sądów, szukać korzeni współ­ czesnej pragmatyki społecznej odnoszącej się do Cyganów. Dlatego wydało mi się właściwe dla lepszego zrozumienia współczesności i dla lepszej moż­ liwości analizy mechanizmów kształtujących kulturę tej grupy (a także, by zweryfikować niektóre istotne, a w moim przekonaniu mylne, opinie nauko- '• we), sięgnięcie do stale jeszcze mało znanej i badanej przeszłości. LITERATURA Bardach J. 1980 Aleksander, [w:] Poczet królów i książąt polskich, Warszawa. Broda J. 1951 Przywileje nominacyjne na króla cygańskiego w Polsce z 1731 r. i na cygańskie z 1732 г., „Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne", t. III, Poznań. wójtostwo �S U P L E M E N T DO P O C Z T U KRÓLÓW I STARSZYCH CYGAŃSKICH 321 C z a c k i T. 1843 O litewskich i polskich prawach, [w:] Dzieła, t. I, Poznań. 1845 O Cyganach, [w:] Dzieła, t. III. Poznań. D a n i ł o w i c z I. 1824 O Cyganach wiadomość historyczna, Wilno. F i c o w s k i J. 1965 Cyganie na polskich drogach, Kraków. K a r p i ń s k i R. 1980 Jan I Olbracht, [w:] Poczet królów i książąt polskich. Warszawa. M odel sk i T. F. 1824 O Cyganach wiadomość historyczna, Wilno. Narbutt T. 1830 Rys historyczny ludu cygańskiego. Wilno. O c h m a ń s k i J. 1982 Historia Litwy. Wrocław. Pol W. 1870 Obrazki z życia natury, t. II, Północny wschód Europy, Kraków. P r o c h a s k a A. 1900 Przywileje dla starszyzny cygańskiej w Polsce, „Kwartalnik Historyczny", t. X I V , Lwów. Lech Mróz S U P P L E M E N T TO T H E LIST O F G Y P S Y K I N G S A N D E L D E R S IN P O L A N D Summary Two new evidences concerning the vesting with the rank of the Gypsy chieftains have been found in the books of Polish royal chancellery (so-called Sigillata kept in the Central Archives of Old Records in Warsaw) recently. That discovery has changed the previous historians" views on the so-called elders and kings of the Gypsies. Previously the scholars believed that Polish noblemen had been vested with that office not earlier than since the beginning of the 18 century. The data found in Sigillata (concerning the years 1668 and 1768) proved that the noblemen were appointed as the Gypsy elders as early as the II halfth of the 18 century. Considering the royal documents confirming the chieftains of the Gypsies on their offices the author discusses the problem of reliability of one of those sources, regarded by the historians as the oldest one, namely the privilege of the king Alexander the Jagiellonian dated on May 25 1 501. Representante of the nobility were appointed as the headmen of the Gypsies and their office was confirmed by king's privileges not only in Poland but also in Hungary and Transylvania and we have evidence of that reaching back still earlier. Still it is worth noticing that both the King Wladislaus II and Isabela who are known to have drawn out such documents were brother and sister of the Polish kings. Moreover some of the royal procedures in Hungary were parallel to those in Poland. That can witness that the Jagiellonian "royal court cared much about the Gypsies and certain actions were being undertaken in order to settle the legal and social status of this ethnic group. The author calls into question the opinion — regarded as certain by historians — that the Gypsy elders appointed by the king profitted by their subjects. True enough that according to privileges tributes were due to be paid to the chieftains by the Gypsies but as till now we have no evidence confirming the headmen's special profits or the exploitation of the subjects. 21 - Etnografia Polska, t. X X X I I , z. 1 �322 L E C H MRÓZ Besides the chieftain appointed by the king the owners of some largest landed estates (i.e. the aristocratic families like Sanguszko or Radziwiłł) appointed their own, but those were always the Gypsies who probably were the elders of the Gypsy groups before. But it is another matter, here the author is concerned with the royal nominations and especially with appointing the non-Gypsies as the headmen of the Gypsy groups. Translated by Anna Kuczyńska-Skrzypek \ � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/3751c5a939d84c1edff027a345d758fd.pdf e37e95132663c84579515ba5dd37a405 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:2303 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:2136 Title A name given to the resource Surrealizm i etnografia / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1991 t.45 z.1 Description An account of the resource Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1991 t.45 z.1, s.3-6 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kaniowska, Katarzyna Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polski Instytut Sztuki Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text Katarzyna Kaniowska SURREALIZM I ETNOGRAFIA* Etnografia, podobnie jak i inne dziedziny nauk społecznych, przejmowała zwykle wiele z prądów intelektualnych przenikają­ cych naukową i pozanaukową działalność ludzi danej epoki. Rozmaitość teorii kultury implikująca sposoby myślenia o kul­ turze ma swoje źródła w samej kulturze. W ten sposób stwarza się szczególna zależność - etnografia jako nauka o kulturze kształ­ towana jest przez przedmiot swych badań. To wzajemne kształ­ towanie się etnologii i kultury wyraźnie zaznacza się współcześ­ nie. W przedstawionym tekście wskazać chcę na wzajemne związki surrealizmu i etnologii, mogące być przykładem owego obustronnego oddziaływania kultury i etnologii. Surrealizm trak­ tuję tu nie tyle jako pewien nurt współczesnej sztuki i literatury, lecz jako określony światopogląd. Oddziaływanie światopoglądu surrealistycznego zmienia etnografię współczesną w ślad za etnografią francuską, kształtując przede wszystkim strukturalizm, lecz nie jedynie. W wyniku tych przemian powstaje nowy typ myślenia o kulturze. Narzuca on etnologii nowy przedmiot poznania i nowe metody. Podstawowe pojęcia francuskiego strukturalizmu zwykło się wyprowadzać z koncepcji Marcela Maussa i Emila Durkheima , z doświadczeń strukturalnych koncepcji językoznawstwa, cza­ sem odwołując się też do psychoanalitycznych twierdzeń o kul­ turze. Wskazanie takich źródeł inspiracji etnologii strukturalistycznej wydaje się trafne tym bardziej, że na nie właśnie wyraźnie powołuje się sam Lśvi-Strauss. W Antropologii strukturalnej deklaruje on zarówno swą admirację koncepcji Durkheima i Maussa (Antropologia strukturalna dedykowana jest Durkheimowi), jak i przekonanie o szczególnej przydatności dorobku filozofii języka i strukturalnych badań językoznawczych. Jakkolwiek przyjęte na ten temat sądy są słuszne, odwoływanie się do powyższych źródeł nie wyjaśnia, w moim przekonaniu, całości zjawiska jakim jest etnologia strukturalistyczna i poststrukturalistyczna. Prawdziwe początki tkwią gdzie indziej i głębiej niż w bezpośrednio poprzedzających strukturalizm prądach myśli humanistycznej. Początków tych upatruję w szcze­ gólnej atmosferze intelektualnej powstałej we Francji z począt­ kiem lat dwudziestych, a ściślej - w zrodzonym w tej atmosferze surrealizmie. Surrealizm kojarzymy przede wszystkim ze sztuką i literaturą uznając w nim jeden z oryginalniejszych w tych dziedzinach prądów. Skojarzenie takie zubaża jednak prawdziwe przesłanie surrealizmu. Miał on być bowiem i stał się faktycznie czymś więcej - a mianowicie szczególną filozofią człowieka i kultury. W rozważaniach tych interesować mnie będzie surrealizm w tym właśnie znaczeniu. Światopogląd surrealizmu znaczył wiele i znaczy nadal, choć zapewne nie uświadamiamy sobie tego wpływu. Ukształtował bowiem, w moim przekonaniu, rzeczywiś­ cie nowe spojrzenie na otaczający człowieka świat. A to wywarło wyraźne piętno w dziedzinie poznania. Surrealizm zatem to nie tylko prąd w humanistyce, ale próba określenia nowego typu myślenia. Mnie interesować tu będą bezpośrednie związki sur­ realizmu i etnologii. Związki te wydają się być szczególnie silne. Surrealizmu zainteresowanie światem obejmowało swym zakresem to, co właściwie stanowi sedno etnologii, a mianowicie skupiało się wokół kulturowej kondycji człowieka. Kilku spośród surrealistów zajęło się z czasem także i etnologią (Georges Bataille, Michel Leiris), większość zaś uczestniczyła w wykładach Maussa i in1 2 " Referat wygłoszony na konferencji „Metodologiczne pro­ blemy współczesnych badań nad kulturą i tradycją", Toruń, Muzeum Etnograficzne, 1980 teresowała się żywo freudyzmem. W różnorakiej działalności surrealistów, w malarstwie, literaturze czy sztuce odnaleźć można wyraźne świadectwa fascynacji innymi kulturami, między innymi w sięganiu do nowej symboliki, innej od znanej w obrębie własnej kultury. Związki surrealizmu i etnologii mają jednak u swych podstaw coś więcej niż bliskie sobie nastawienie do przedmiotu poznania i tożsamości owego przedmiotu. Refleksję nad sytuacją człowie­ ka wobec kultury określała w surrealizmie nowa postawa po­ znającego. W ogłoszonym w 1924 roku Manifeście surrealistycz­ nym Andre Breton pisał: „postawa realistyczna, dyktowana przez pozytywizm od Św. Tomasza aż do Anatola France'a wydaje mi się zaprzeczeniem wszelkiego wzlotu intelektualnego i moral­ nego"*. I dalej: 3 „ciągle żyjemy pod władzą logiki (...). Ale metody postępowania logicznego w naszych czasach służą jedynie do rozwiązania drugorzędnych zagadnień. Cieszący się ciągle powodzeniem racjonalizm absolutny pozwala rozpatrywać tylko zjawiska zwią­ zane ściśle z naszym doświadczeniem (...). Nie trzeba dodawać, że doświadczenie samo nakreśliło sobie granice. I kręci się teraz uwięzione w klatce, z której coraz to trudniej je wyciągnąć. Doświadczenie także opiera się na bezpośredniej użyteczności i przebywa pod strażą zdrowego rozsądku." Poznawanie człowieka powinno więc się stać rodzajem „wzlo­ tu intelektualnego", wzniesieniem się ponad to, co dyktuje „racjonalizm absolutny", władza logiki i doświadczenia. Po­ znanie ma stać się aktem innego rodzaju, zależnym od innego sposobu myślenia, a wyobraźnia ma takie poznanie gwaran­ tować. Znamienne, że surrealizm nie rozstrząsa problemu prawdy. Wartość poznania zależy przede wszystkim od sposobów po­ znania, a największą wartość poznaniu przydaje wyobraźnia. Poznanie świata nie jest przez surrealizm ograniczane do szcze­ gólnych pól działania wyobraźni jakie obejmuje sztuka. Daje temu wyraz Breton w Manifeście: 5 „Jeżeli w głębinach naszego umysłu kryją się dziwne siły, zdolne do pomnażania sił na powierzchni albo do staczania z nimi zwycięskiej walki, to jak najbardziej warto je schwytać, aby potem, jeżeli zdołamy, poddać je kontroli naszego umysłu. Analitycy mogą na tym tylko zyskać. Ale trzeba koniecznie wziąć pod uwagę, że nie ma tu wyznaczonych a priori sposobów postępowania, że w obecnym stanie rzeczy może to być zarówno powołaniem poetów, jak i uczonych". Pierwszym postulatem surrealizmu, jaki odnieść można i do etnologii jest więc wołanie o wyobraźnię. Powołaniem tak poety, jak i uczonego staje się konieczność szukania nowych sił umysłu, w konsekwencji zaś - konieczność zawierzenia nowym drogom poznania. Drugi Manifest Surrealizmu ogłoszony w roku 1930 formułuje to wyraźnie między innymi w następującym fragmen­ cie: 6 „surrealizm do niczego nie dąży bardziej, jak do wywołania, z punktu widzenia intelektualnego i moralnego, kryzysu świado­ mości w najszerszym i najpoważniejszym zakresie" Rozważmy, czy owe intelektualne ambicje surrealizmu zostały przez etnologię podjęte. Dążność do wzbogacenia poznania o to wszystko, co niosło ze sobą uruchomienie wyobraźni dało - jak się zdaje - ówczesnej etnologii bardzo wiehe. Można by zapewne powiedzieć, iż tym samym etnografia przestaje być nauką w tradycyjnym sensie. Oznacza to próbę odwrotu od pozytywistycznego ideału nauki. Etnografia przestaje więc być nauką, staje się raczej aktywnością. I trzeba tu dodać - aktywnością szczególnego rodzaju. Wprowa­ dzenie wyobraźni powoduje bowiem z konieczności nowe okreś­ lenie granic etnografii, a wraz z tym naturalnie nowe rozumienie kultury. Kulturę ujmuje się przede wszystkim jako rzeczywistość myślową, poznawalną w większym stopniu poprzez ogląd in7 �telektualny niźli np. poprzez doświadczenie. Doświadczenie zewnętrzne, empiryczne ustępuje miejsca doświadczeniu we­ wnętrznemu. Wszytko to oddziałuje bezpośrednio na sposób uprawiania etnologii, a także zwraca ją ku pewnym zjawiskom, które - niewątpliwie pod wpływem surrealizmu - wyznaczają nowy obszar poznania etnologii. W obszarze zainteresowań pojawiają się mit, sen (czy w ogóle wątki oniryczne), magia, szczególnie - kultury magiczne, erotyzm i sztuka. Gdy zaś chodzi 0 sposób poznania - etnolog staje wobec konieczności uprawo­ mocnienia doświadczenia wewnętrznego, pojawiają się więc problemy z opisem czy z rodzajem danych, jakim można by zawierzyć. Zanim przejdę do krótkiego omówienia przedmiotu i metody inspirowanej surrealizmem etnologii, chcę wspomnieć o jednej jeszcze charakterystycznej dla tegoż okresu cesze etnologii (i to zapewne nie tylko francuskiej). Etnologia rozumiana jako szcze­ gólnego rodzaju aktywność staje się jednocześnie rodzajem azylu. Ten motyw etnografii jako ucieczki - sam w sobie frapujący - pojawia się, w moim odczuciu, znów za przyczyną surrealizmu. Jak słusznie podkreśla Małgorzata Baranowska: „Surrealiści nie mają oparcia w absolucie, a jednocześnie odczuwają konieczność odbudowy egzystencji człowieka naru­ szonej w swych podstawach przez szok pierwszej wojny świato­ wej. Zmieniła się przestrzeń zewnętrzna człowieka, zmieniła się hierarchia społeczna w tempie, do którego Europa nie była przyzwyczajona; zmieniły się lęki i obsesje pod wpływem nie znanych dotąd zagrożeń (...). Walenie się w gruzy starego porządku stało się jedną z przyczyn, dla których awangardy starały się destrukcję uczynić porządkiem." Konstatowany w // Manifeście kryzys świadomości mający być kryzysem twórczym, prowadzącym do powstawania nowej świa­ domości wyrasta niewątpliwie z kryzysu wiary w ład świata. Ta katastrofa świata istniejącego, silnie przez surrealistów odczuwa­ na, kieruje także etnografów ku „badaniu wewnętrznej prze­ strzeni człowieka". Ucieczka od rzeczywistości prowadzi do zwrócenia się ku ukrytym wymiarom kultury własnej lub do zainteresowań tajemniczymi kulturami plemiennymi. Motyw tak rozumianej ucieczki uwidacznia się wyraźnie w dorobku Bataille'a i Leirisa. 8 9 Powróćmy jednak do przedmiotu i metod inspirowanej sur­ realizmem etnologii. Zwrócenie się ku chęci poznania innego świata wywołało zainteresowanie etnologów właściwie tym samym, co pobudzało poetów - mitem, snem, sferą sacrum, która obejmowała i erotykę i sztukę. Wszystkie te elementy współist­ nieją w myślowej rzeczywistości człowieka i trudno poznawać je 1 badać w oderwaniu. Mit pojmowany jest przez etnologów, na których oddziałał surrealizm, nieco odmiennie niż pojmowany był przez Carla Gustava Junga, a więc nie jako produkt nieświado­ mości, wizji, wyobraźni zbiorowej. Mit w koncepcji Leirisa, Bataille'a, Rogera Caillois czy Renś Girarda jest bardziej mitem „indywidualnym" niż „zbiorowym". Chodzi tu raczej o treści, jakie w „poszczególnych aktach wyobraźni realizują (się) jako napięcie między .instynktami' i .kulturą'" . Mit wobec tego leży u podstaw istoty człowieka - funkcjonuje bowiem na styku ludzkiej natury i kultury, jest więc w tym sensie uniwersalny. Szukanie mitu, odkrywanie jego treści i siły oddziaływania staje się głównym zadaniem etnologa analizującego zarówno kulturę własną, jak i obcą, inną. Etnologowi, tak jak Bataillowi, „wszyst­ ko (...) służy za materiał do dociekań: obyczaje owadów, fizjo­ logia komórkowa, etnografia, historia religii, żywoty świętych, książki wszelkiego rodzaju, sny własne i cudze, zasłyszane przypadki. Masa tak różnorodnych wiadomości bynajmniej go nie przytłacza, tylko domaga się odnalezienia reguły porząd­ kującej." Poszukiwania takie mogą odbywać się na drodze swoistej autoanalizy, na drodze etnologicznej rekonstrukcji mitu autobiograficznego. Analizy takiej dokonuje Leiris w swej „ p o ­ wieści etnologicznej" Wiek męski, w której mistyfikacja literacka nacechowana jest autoanalityczną dociekliwością badacza. Po­ dobnie skandalizujące powieści Bataille'a - Madame Edwarda, Błękit nieba czy Winny są przede wszystkim analizą mitu erotyz­ mu nierozerwalnie związanego ze śmiercią. W swej pozaliterac10 11 4 kiej działalności obydwaj surrealiści-etnologowie skupili się na badaniach kultur pozaeuropejskich. Obydwu inspirowały wy­ kłady Marcela Maussa, w szczególności zaś działalność Parys­ kiego Instytutu Etnologicznego założonego w 1925 r. przez Paula Riveta, Lucien Lśvy-Bruhla i Maussa. Data i fakt założenia tej pierwszej we Francji instytucji zainteresowanej nade wszystko profesjonalnymi badaniami terenowymi i publikacją wyników etnograficznych badań zbiegają się z ogłoszeniem / Manifestu Surrealistycznego i umocnieniem się całego surrealistycznego ruchu. W tym okresie Bataille i Leiris biorą w ruchu czynny udział. Zaś w kilka lat później podejmą własne badania etnologiczne. Leiris rozpoczął studia u Maussa; uczestniczył w pierwszej wyprawie badawczej Instytutu Etnologicznego tzw. Mission Dakar-Djibouti trwającej w latach 1931-1933, jednej spośród czterech podjętych przez Instytut wypraw badawczych (Abisynia 1928-1929, Sahara 1935, Kamerun 1936-1937). Odkrycia i wy­ niki badań z tej wyprawy opublikowano w specjalnym numerze czasopisma „Minotaure". Leiris skoncentrował się tam na anali­ zie sztuki zajmując się głównie problematyką - jak to później nazwano - etnoestetyki. Równocześnie, w 1934 r. wydał swój dziennik prowadzony w trakcie podróży i badań. W książce tej zatytułowanej L'Afrique fantome odnaleźć można wszystkie wątki zarówno literackiej, jak i naukowej twórczości Leirisa. Obok danych autobiograficznych, w których uwidocznia się wspominany już motyw ucieczki, rozpatrywany jest problem szczególnego stosunku przedmiotu i podmiotu w badaniu etno­ graficznym. Sytuacja badawcza jest, zdaniem Leirisa, zawsze sytuacją wywołaną. Tworzy ją sam etnograf stawiając określone pytania w określonych warunkach. Powinno się zatem objąć analizą zarówno badanego, jak i badającego. Im lepiej rozumiemy innego i to, co inne, tym lepiej rozumiemy samych siebie i odwrotnie. Nie ma więc czystego interesu poznawczego. Stąd też odwołuje się Leiris do wagi przeżycia, doświadczenia (choćby miało ono zależeć od pozaintelektualnego poznania), poprzez takie poznanie innego poznać można to, co inne w samym sobie. Zgodnie z surrealistycznym postulatem co do nowego rodzaju poznania, Leiris zakłada konieczność zrzucenia jarzma własnej kultury. Pozwoli to na zbliżenie się ku poznawanej obcej kulturze, a także na odkrycie utajonych treści. Etnologia jest więc dla niego etnologią siebie i innego. Przekonanie o konieczności odrzucenia własnej kultury (a jest w tym zapewne echo założeń durkheimowskich) jest warunkiem poznania. W późniejszych pracach czyni Leiris z owego wyzwalania się z więzów kultury sedno działań człowieka. Bada kulty opętania będące, jego zdaniem, świadectwem, przykładem przekraczania granic norm, jakie na­ kłada na jednostkę kultura. Drugi z grona surrealistów-etnologów, Bataille, podjął badania etnograficzne pod wpływem Alfreda Metraux. Metraux, uczeń Maussa, jeden z pierwszych we Francji badaczy terenowych prowadził w latach dwudziestych swoje własne badania em­ piryczne wśród Indian Tupinamba z Amazonii. Bataille, zaintere­ sowany najpierw sztuką Indian Ameryki Południowej, rozpoczął współpracę z Metraux. Pośrednio wynikiem tej współpracy było studium o erotyzmie (Z. 'Erotisme) wydane dopiero w 1957 r. oraz opublikowany w 1930 r. tekst towarzyszący wystawie sztuki prekolumbijskiej. W L'Erotisme zainspirowany, jak się zdaje, twierdzeniem Maussa, że „tabu tworzone są po to, aby je łamać", wykłada Bataille swą teorię kultury. Kulturę uznaje za strukturę ambiwalentną. Rzeczywistość kulturowa zawiera w sobie i reguły prawa i reguły transgresji. Uświadomienie takiej logiki zjawisk kulturowych pozwala dostrzec ich rolę-i poprawnie interpretować te elementy kultury, które postrzegamy jako skrajnie sobie prze­ ciwstawne lub jako „inne", „nienormalne", odstępujące od dominującego wzoru. Łamanie zakazu jest w kulturze usank­ cjonowane (sankcje te mogą być wyraźnie manifestowane lub ukryte). Transgresja jest konieczna, co więcej - staje się ona motorem przemian w kulturze. Towarzyszy jej zawsze, jak mówi Bataille, „emocja pozytywna" sankcjonująca odstępstwo od normy. �Warto też odnotować, że Bataille wraz z Leirisem i Callois założyli w marcu 1936 r. tzw. Kolegium Socjologiczne, będące rodzajem nieformalnego towarzysta naukowego. Przedmiotem zainteresowań Kolegium, prowadzącego działalność poprzez serię wykładów, była przede wszystkim socjologia sacrum. Problematyce mitu czy erotyzmu towarzyszą więc w koncepc­ jach Leirisa i Bataille'a rozważania nad istotą i rolą zakazu w kulturze. Według Bataille'a, jak słusznie zauważa Ewa Bień­ kowska: „do istoty erotyzmu należy zakaz i transgresja zarówno w sen­ sie społecznym jak jednostkowym, egzystencjalnym. Ponieważ jest to aktywność wymykająca się regułom życia zbiorowego, z natury anarchiczna, łączą się z nią rozmaite tabu. Erotyzm to dziedzina, gdzie zerwana jest więź wspólnotowa, ustaje nieprze­ rwany jednoczący wysiłek mowy. Toteż jest on synonimem ostatecznej granicy, do jakiej może dotrzeć człowiek - poza symbol religijny, poza wszelką gwarancję pojęcia, znaku, warto­ ści. Bowiem pojęcie, znak, wartość są tylko tam, gdzie jest zbiorowość wokół nich skupiona." Możemy więc mniemać, że zwrócenie się etnologów-surrealistów ku powyższym kwestiom ma u swych podstaw wspomnianą już chęć wskazania źródeł kultury. Analiza sfery sacrum obej­ mującej też mit i erotykę prowadzi tu do odkrycia naczelnej siły rządzącej kulturą, za jaką uznają etnologowie-surrealiści siłę zakazu i przekroczenia. One to stanowią fundament wszelkich zjawisk kulturowych funkcjonując jednocześnie jako reguła or­ ganizująca kulturę człowieka. Odkrycie kulturotwóczej roli zaka­ zu i uznanie zakazu za uniwersalną regułę odpowiadało duchowi surrealizmu. Odkrycie to jednoczyło bowiem dwa ważne elemen­ ty światopoglądu surrealistycznego. Po pierwsze, odpowiadało przeświadczeniu o jednym i powszechnym źródle otaczających człowieka zjawisk. W przywołanym już wcześniej // Manifeście Andre Breton pisał: 12 „Wszystko przemawia za tym, że istnieje pewien punkt w umy­ śle, z którego życie i śmierć, rzeczywistość i urojenie, przeszłość i przyszłość, rzeczy możliwe i niemożliwe do przekazania, góra i dół przestaną być postrzegne jako przeciwstawne. Daremną byłoby rzeczą dopatrywać się w działalności surrealistycznej innej pobudki poza nadzieją określenia tego miejsca. (...) miejsce 0 którym mowa jest a fortiori miejscem, gdzie budowa i destrukcja nie mogą być przeciwko sobie wygrywane" . Po drugie, zgodnie z duchem surrealizmu jest i to, że owa naczelna reguła kulturowa, za jaką uznano zakaz, zawiera w sobie charakterystyczny dla surrealizmu wątek kreacji poprzez destruk­ cję. Oba te elementy światopoglądu surrealistycznego występują w koncepcjach etnologów-surrealistów, a także w teorii et­ nologa młodszego pokolenia, w moim przekonaniu tkwiącego w tym samym nurcie myślenia - w teorii Rene Girarda. Podziela on przekonanie o kluczowej roli zakazu i przekroczenia. Wprowa­ dza pojęcie „żądzy naśladowczej", inaczej - siły mimesis. Etnologia, zdaniem Girarda, powinna wokół tego problemu skupić swoje badania. Jak dotąd bowie, „na temat tego wszyst­ kiego, co mieści w sobie pojęcie mimetyzmu, imitacji, mimesis, zarówno nauka o człowieku, jak i kultura mają pogląd jednostron­ ny. W zachowaniu człowieka nie ma niczego lub prawie niczego, co nie byłoby wyuczone, a każde uczenie się można określić jako imitację. Gdyby ludzie przestali nagle wzajemnie się naśladować, zaczęłyby stopniowo zanikać wszystkie formy kulturowe." Mimesis właśnie, a ściślej - konflikty prowokowane przez mime­ sis przywłaszczania mogą, w przekonaniu Girarda, wyjaśnić podstawowy problem istnienia zakazów. „Należy więc zacząć od uzasadnienia racji bytu niektórych zakazów. Nie ma kultury, która by nie zakazywała stosowania gwałtu wewnątrz grupy. Oprócz aktów gwałtu jako takiego, zakaz obejmuje również sytuacje mogące dać okazję do jego stosowania, więc zaciekłą rywaliza­ cję, a także różne formy konkurencji." Badania prowadzone w obrębie kultur plemiennych potwierdzają przypuszczenie, że forma zakazów dotyczących zachowań naśladowczych nie różni się od formy zakazów dotyczących gwałtu i ostrej rywalizacji. Europejczyka przede wszystkim uderza fakt, że w przypadku takich właśnie zachowań wszyscy naśladują się wzajemnie 13 11 15 1 wzajemnie przekształcają się w podobizny innych. „Podczas, gdy my dostrzegamy jedynie rezultat konfliktów, to znaczy zwycięstwo jednych a porażkę drugich, a więc wyłaniają­ ce się z konfliktu zróżnicowanie, społeczność tradycyjna i prymi­ tywna kładzie nacisk na przebieg procesu dotyczącego obu stron, a więc wzajemną imitację antagonistów. Uderza ich właśnie podobieństwo pomiędzy konkurentami, identyczność celów i manewrów, symetria gestów." Mamy więc ustalony mechanizm funkcjonowania k u l t u r y - o d wzajemniany gwałt jest eskalacją rywalizacji mimetycznej, ta zaś rodzi nowe przekroczenie. Mimesis i gwałt należy, zdaniem Girarda, uznać za początek wszystkiego, aby zrozumieć zakazy jako zjawiska całościowe. Jest w tej koncepcji kultury znów wyraźne echo myśli surrealiz­ mu. Idea gwałtu na zastanym porządku, przekroczenia zakazu jako początku wszelkiej zmiany odpowiada przekonaniu surreali­ stów o konieczności wywołania sił destrukcyjnych w jakimkol­ wiek akcie tworzenia. Zarówno surrealiści, jak i etnologowie świadomie lub nieświadomie przejmujący elementy surrealis­ tycznego światopoglądu, są zgodni co do tego, że najpełniej walkę sił destrukcyjnych z kreacyjnymi dostrzec można w sferze sacrum. Sacrum staje się tym samym polem szczególnej penet­ racji. Surrealiści i etnologowie ulegają tu doświadczeniom psy­ choanalizy. Powoduje to między innymi przyjęcie względnie szerokich granic obszaru sacrum mieszczącego, jak wspomina­ łam, wszelkie doznania „graniczne" zrodzone z religii, wyobraźni czy przeżycia erotycznego. „Święte" staje się wszystko cokol­ wiek ma u swego początku przekroczenie zakazu, wykroczenie poza doświadczenie potocznej rzeczywistości. W tym sensie dla Bataille'a erotyka jest sacrum, dla Leirisa - mit i sen, a dla Girarda - religia i rytuał ofiary są sacrum, ponieważ łączą się z prze­ kroczeniem reguł rządzących światem zewnętrznym. Od pojęć i przedmiotu zainteresowań etnologów surrealistów przejdźmy do metody. Surrealizm, jak wiadomo, konstatując kryzys świadomości proponował nowy rodzaj poznania. Miało ono być nie tylko skupione wokół określonych treści, ale też miało uznać za właściwe sobie metody odmienne od tradycyjnych, pozytywistycznych. To zwrócenie się ku innym metodom po­ znania dyktowane było jednym z podstawowych przekonań surrealizmu o wadze doświadczenia wewnętrznego w procesie poznania. Pisząc o istocie tego doświadczenia Bataille stwier­ dzał: 16 „Już od jakiegoś czasu jedyna żywa filozofia, tj. filozofia szkoły niemieckiego, usiłuje uczynić z wiedzy (z poznania) ostateczny zakres doświadczenia wewnętrznego. Lecz ta fenomenologia przypisuje poznaniu wartości jakiegoś celu, do którego dochodzi się przez doświadczenie. Otóż jest to nieporozumienie: część przynależna doświadczeniu jest tu zarazem zbyt i nie dość wielka." Doświadczenie wewnętrzne rodzi się, według Bataille'a, z po­ trzeby bezzwłocznego zakwestionowania, podważenia wszyst­ kiego. Dostrzec tu można i durkheimowski postulat wyzbycia się przedsądów jak i surrealistyczną negację wartości zastanych. Ten kryzys wiedzy, która wydaje się niewystarczająca, bo odnosi się do rzeczywistości jałowej, nie przynoszącej nic poznaniu, ma służyć uświadomieniu faktu, iż w poznaniu trzeba „skończyć z operacjami analitycznymi i dzięki temu uciec od poczucia pustki rozumowych p y t a ń " . Intelekt musi pojąć wysiłek rozszerzenia swych granic. Bataille dostrzega trudności, jakich przysparza konieczność sprecyzowania definicji doświadczenia wewnętrz­ nego. Pisze on: 17 18 „moje słowa wydawać się mogą mętną teorią i nie widzę na to żadnej rady, mogę jedynie powiedzieć: trzeba uchwycić ich sens od wewnątrz. Nie można ich dowieść logicznie. Trzeba p r z e ­ ż y ć doświadczenie; nie jest ono łatwo dostępne i intelekt, który patrzy na nie z zewnątrz, dojrzy w nim zlepek rozmaitych operacji, już to intelektualnych, już to estetycznych, a wreszcie moralnych, toteż cały problem trzeba będzie postawić na nowo. Jedynie od wewnątrz (...) doświadczenie ukazuje się jako scalające to, co myśl dyskursywna musi wyodrębniać." Pojmowanie doświadczenia wewnętrznego jako szczególnego aktu poznania jednoczącego rozmaite treści, lecz nie dającego się właściwie zobiektywizować nie burzyło oczekiwań surrealistów co do natury poznania. Problem ten staje się trudniejszy, gdy 19 5 �przejść do dokonań etnologów zainspirowanych surrealizmem. Sam Bataille, podobnie jak Leiris, próbował rozwiązać ten problem, zakładając, iż najcenniejszym materiałem etnologicznym jest biografia, a jeszcze lepszym -autobiografia. Stwarza ona możliwość analizy także i tych wartości, które nigdy nie będą ujawnione, nie odkryte w żadnych zachowaniach. Autobiografia jest więc tym szczególnym opisem kultury, w którym zawarte są najistotniejsze dane o najistotniejszych treściach kultury. Analiza autobiografii (będąca właściwie auto-psychoanalizą) oparta jest na analizie doświadczenia wewnętrznego, umożliwiając niejako w ten sposób wprowadzenie do etnologii nowych metod gwa­ rantujących ów nowy, postulowany już w / Manifeście Surrealis­ tycznym sposób poznania. Obok doświadczenia wewnętrznego surrealizm, jeśli chodzi o poznanie, zawierzał także wyobraźni. Miała ona nie tylko rozszerzyć pole poznania, ale i przemienić jego metody. Do­ strzeżenie roli wyobraźni w pracy etnografa wiązało się nie tylko z rozszerzeniem granic przedmotu badań. Surrealizm, jak się zdaje, utrwali w etnologii skłonność do operowania modelem kultury. Pojęcie modelu kultury nie jest oczywiście właściwe jedynie etnologii inspirowanej surrealizmem; pojawiło się ono jednocześnie w skrajnie różnej koncepcji etnologicznej - w funkcjonalizmie. Niemniej jednak w etnologii francuskiej odwoływa­ nie się do modelu kultury znaczy przede wszystkim to, że etnolog t w o r z y model kultury, a nie rekonstruuje. Jest to zaś różnica warta zaznaczenia. Mamy bowiem do czynienia ze z gruntu innym postępowaniem. W pierwszym przypadku o kulturze formułuje się sądy a priori, ustanawiając pewien porządek zjawisk kulturowych, wskazując tym samym hierarchie ich ważności. W praktyce więc uznaje się, iż pewne wartości leżą u podstaw całego systmu kulturowego lub stanowią rdzeń wszystkiego co w danej kulturze (lub w kulturze ludzkiej) istnieje. Przykładem takiego postępowania mogą być właśnie koncepcje wspomnia­ nych przeze mnie antropologów francuskich z Claudem Levi-Straussem włącznie. W każdej z tych koncepcji zakłada się istnienie jakiejś uniwersalnej reguły organizującej kulturę. Tworzy się model kultury w oparciu o tę prazasadę i analiza konkretnego materiału empirycznego zdaje się być swoistą weryfikacją kon­ strukcji teoretycznej. W drugim przypadku, gdy model kultury służyć ma rekonstrukcji rzeczywistości, postępowanie badacza jest zgoła odmienne. Model kultury, jakkolwiek także pozostaje konstruktem teoretycznym, uznaje się za swoiste, skrótowe odbicie faktycznych związków pomiędzy elementami kultury rzeczywistej; model jest wtedy właściwie zrekonstruowanym schematem rzeczywistości. Już pobieżny ten przegląd dowodzi bliskości surrealizmu i etnologii. Myślę, że można zasadnie twierdzić, iż etnologia francuska, a' w ślad za nią pewien nurt współczesnej myśli etnologicznej wywodzą się także i ze światopoglądu surrealis­ tycznego. Surrealizm pozwolił etnologii rozszerzyć granice wska­ zując zarazem możliwości poznania ukrytych treści kultury-mitu, snu, sacrum - przez szukanie ich uniwersalnych przejawów i uniwersalnych reguł. Surrealizm postawił także etnologię wobec konieczości uświa­ domienia specyficznych trudności badań kultury, tym samym zaś -konieczności szukania nowych sposobów poznania odmiennych od tradycyjnych, a jednoczących poznającego i poznawane, wymagających od etnologa czegoś nowego-twórczej wyobraźni. PRZYPISY 1 Czyni tak m. in. E. Tarkowska w pracy Ciągłość i zmiana socjologii francuskiej, Warszawa 1974 Patrz np. Wprowadzenie lub rozdział Język i pokrewieństwo w Antropologii strukturalnej C. Lśvi-Straussa. Przykłady można by tu mnożyć. Znane są przykłady wpływu sztuki prymitywnej na malarstwo i rzeźbę tego okresu. W twór­ czości Pabla Picasso, Victora Braunera, Маха Ernsta, Rene Magritte'a, Paula Klee, Salvatora Dali, Giorgio Chiroco i wielu innych dostrzec można zarówno formalne, jak i tematyczne związki pokrewieństwa z tzw. sztuką prymitywną czy kulturami prymitywnymi. W literaturze, szczególnie w poezji, sięganie do mitu, snu, które są „zwierciadłem najpierwszej myśli człowieka" można uznać znów za echo „etnologicznych" fascynacji. A. Breton, Manifest surrealizmu (1924) (w:) A. Ważyk, Surrealizm. Teoria i praktyka literacka. Antologia, Warszawa 1973, s. 58 Tamże, s. 62 Tamże,,s. 62-63 Tamże, s. 125 M. Baranowska, Surrealna wyobraźnia i poezja. Warszawa 1984, s. 13 Warto też zwrócić uwagę, że motyw ten powtarza się w biografiach wielu znaczących postaci w etnologii. Wspomnieć tu można choćby C. Levi-Straussa, R. Benedict czy B. Malinows­ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 kiego. W Smutku tropików w początkowym rozdziale Koniec podróży motyw poszukiwania spokojniejszej i bardziej interesu­ jącej rzeczywistości od tej jakiej autor doświadcza - jest wyraźny. R. Benedict, jak twierdzi we wstępie do Wzorów kultury A. Kłoskowska, przywiodła ku etnografii skrajnia wręcz nieśmiałość i nieumiejętność kontaktów z ludźmi. Biografowie Malinows­ kiego pozwalają sądzić, podobnie jak i fragmenty Dzienników, że wyprawa na Triobriandy nie miała jedynie celów naukowyh u swych źródeł. M. Baranowska, op. cit., s. 15 E. Bieńkowska, Mówiąc składam hold milczeniu, „Teksty" 1974, nr 2 (14), s. 61 Tamże, s. 64 A. Breton: // Manifest Surrealizmu, (w:) A. Ważyk, Sur­ realizm..., s. 125-126 R. Girard, Rzeczy ukryte od założenia świata, „Literatura na świecie", nr 12 (149), 1983, s. 79 Tamże, s. 83 Tamże, s. 84 G. Bataille, Doświadczenie wewnętrzne (w:) M. Janion (red), Osoby, Gdańsk 1984, s. 270 Tamże, s. 271 Tamże. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 19 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/0ae008f22a45e06fbe38f3c8f71e77de.pdf 1f5b62293fd10781f106fd3bbeea3bc8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Książki Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:6650 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Subject The topic of the resource Afryka Subsaharyjska - rozwój zrównoważony Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:6218 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa Description An account of the resource 210 s., il. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ząbek, Maciej (ed.) Language A language of the resource ang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Iringa (Tanzania) Institute of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology University of Warsaw Type The nature or genre of the resource książka Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text edited by Maciej Ząbek SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT in Sub-Saharan Africa �Sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa ��Sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa edited by Maciej Ząbek University of Iringa (Tanzania) & Institute of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology University of Warsaw Iringa – Warsaw 2015 �© Copyright by Maciej Ząbek 2015 Reviewers: Prof. Nicholas T.A. Bangu Prof. Wojciech Kluj Proofreading by Iwona Handzelewicz Cover design by Grzegorz Sztandera Photo on the fourth page of the cover Participants of the conference at the University of Iringa ISBN 978-83-7401-515-8 Printed in Poland WDR, Włocławek �CONTENTS Introduction – Maciej Ząbek .....................................................     7 EVELYN PARABOY KANEY & KATHARINE N. FARRELL Mobility as a Pastoralists’ Survival Technique . ....................   25 MACIEJ ZĄBEK Refugee camps in Africa: Sustainable Existence or Sustainable Development . ..............................................   49 SOSTHENES RUHEZA, Z.A. MATTEE, E.E. CHINGONIKAYA, E.E. & Z. KILUGWE Indigenous Knowledge system (IKS) and biodiversity conservation in South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve, Tanzania: Often neglected Partner for sustainable management and use of Biodiversity .........................................................   65 JERZY GILAROWSKI Environmental Change and adjustments in agriculture in Tanzania . ........................................................................   97 FLORA O. KASUMBA & ROBERT LUKELO Sustainable Development and Graduate Unemployment in Tanzania . ........................................................................ 121 JAROSŁAW RÓŻAŃSKI Missions in northern Cameroon and development of local cultures ................................................................... 139 �6 Spis treści RYSZARD PIASECKI & JANUSZ GUDOWSKI The potential role of foreign capital in development of Sub-Saharan Africa ......................................................... 155 IZABELA ŁĘCKA Small and medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) from the Perspective of the Economist Intelligence Unit. Education as a chance for the development of the creative sector in Africa .............................................. 169 KENNEDY JAIRO KIBONA & B. SHILLA A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital among SMEs. A case Study of SMEs in Iringa Municipality . . 189 Conclusions – Maciej Ząbek ...................................................... 203 �INTRODUCTION The Tanzanian-Polish conference held at the private University in Iringa, Tanzania, in February 2015, served as an inspiration for this publication. Its leading theme was the idea of „sustainable development”. This term was firstly used in 1713 in the Treatise on the management of forests by the German scholar Hans Carl von Carlowitz1, who proved that people should cut only as many trees as the number which could grow in the same place in a similar period of time so that the forests would never vanish. “Not by accident this „cutting-edge” consideration appeared when there had already occurred an acute scarcity of timber for the local extractive industry because trees had been clear-cut in the neighbouring forest areas. This is a very natural way of thinking as people resort to the idea of „sustainable” usually in times of disasters, calamities, deficits or ecological imbalance. Only faced with such crises do people wonder how they could have been prevented. In the 20th century the need to take into consideration the principles of sustainable development was firstly emphasized by U Thant, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, in 1969. Finally, (first and foremost under the influence of the report of the Club of Rome of 1972 warning about unlimited exploitation of natural resources), the search for alternative models of devel1 H.C. von Carlowitz, Sylvicultura oeconomica..., Freiberg 1713. �8 Introduction opment started. They became an inspiration for the birth of the above-mentioned term introduced to the global political debate. In 1983, the United Nations established the so-called Brundtland Commission (named after Gro Harlem Brundtland, the chairman of the Commission)2, which coined and defined the meaning of the term “sustainable development” and contributed to convene the so called Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro3, in 1992. Leaders from majority world countries, major United Nations agencies and pro-ecological organizations and movements participated in this summit. They compiled a set of rules for sustainable development, i.e. the so called Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Biological Biodiversity, in an attempt to enforce this idea. The Brundtand Commission defined the concept of „sustainable” as „development which satisfies the needs of contemporary times, without violating the ability of the future generations to satisfy their own needs”. Furthermore, in the Polish translation the word „sustainable” implicates „stability”, „renewability”, „rationality”, „adaptation”, „temperance”, „mildness” and ”peacefulness”. In fact, the very definition „development” is still understood as the process of growth or development to a more and more complicated form, more intense, and more excellent. Yet, it has already been made clear that „development” understood as the economic growth does not translate itself automatically into the betterment 2 Its full name is as follows: World Commission on Environment and Development. 3 The next Summit was held in Johannesburg, in 2002. During the summit principles and recommendations developed in Rio were confirmed. See: U. Grober, From Freiberg to Rio – Hans Carl von Carlowitz “Sylvicultura Oeconomica” and career of the term “sustainability”, in: U. Grober, Sustainability – A cultural history, Totnes, UK, 2012. �Introduction 9 of living conditions and security. Thus, it has been assumed that in order to be secure the „development” should be „sustainable”. Such an assumption became to be commonly perceived as not only proper, but also natural. It is evident that no one wants to live in a degraded, exploited and polluted environment. This philosophy quickly crossed the frames of the sheer environmental protection. Its core is considerably constituted by social welfare and the so called human rights4. A lot of emphasis is placed on minimizing “external costs” generated by economy and the co called social justice. The problem, however, is very particular, as it is not obvious how to develop oneself and simultaneously avoid negative effects resulting therefrom. In fact, it is sometimes very hard to recognize potential threats on a day-to-day basis. Generally, only after a certain period of time are we able to evaluate the real influence of defined technologies on both the environment and the human being. Such obstacles may be exemplified by new varieties of medicines currently coming into the market, food containing GMOs, or any other inventions which cannot be immediately classified as safe or unsafe. A similar situation occurs in case of many development projects executed in Africa. The root of uncertainty as to the final results of various programmes may be also found in scientific research conducted under the influence or commissioned by groups representing miscellaneous financial, political or ideological interests. In reality, academic researchers, expressing distinct opinions on generally favoured development projects, are often subject to political pressure. In their close environs they are frequently deIn 2002, The United Nations developed a set of challenges to be faced by humanity in XXI century, defined as Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). They include among others halving extreme poverty and famine, promoting gender equality, improvement of health care, environmental protection and global partnership for development purposes. 4 �10 Introduction rided and calumniated. They are separated from the main sources of financing and consequently, at universities where freedom of speech should be guaranteed, a lot of scholars are forced to stay silent. On the other hand, however, one should remember that the very scholars are not innocent, which is nowadays highly stressed by reflective anthropology. In fact, they hold specific political views, they are consumed by obsessions and they mix up knowledge with opinions. Additionally, the results of their research presented as objective, are in fact ideologically or business-biased. This type of controversy may be exemplified by heavily political discourse on the so called global warming. In fact, despite climate fluctuations being constantly documented in the whole world, according to sceptics it is still hard to categorically define the direction of the on-going climate changes (warming or cooling) and their significance, not to mention to prove their anthropogenic character. No wonder that the measures undertaken with the aim to fight with the above-mentioned global warming may cause more concern than hope for the positive change in a situation when we face a rather ostensible consensus enforced by political groups, which in reality is far from unanimity5. The idea of „sustainable development”, in view of slogans opting for the shift in economy from competitiveness to greater solidarity, An example of the lack of this unanimity was the so called Heidelberg Appeal, announced before the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, signed by 4000 scholars from all over the world including several dozens of Nobel Prize winners, discouraging the governments from taking decisions based on pseudo-scientific arguments or false data; see: http://www.sepp.org/heidelberg_appeal.html. The so called ecologists found it a deceit prepared by industrial concerns. Still, since then a lot of statements, publications and reports undermining arrangements of the International Panel on Climate Change) have been published and the debate on this topic between mainstream scientists and sceptics has been continued until now. See C. Parkinson, Coming Climate Crisis? Consider the Past, Beware the Big Fix, Plymouth UK 2010. 5 �Introduction 11 cooperation and levelling inequality, was spread, as commonly known, by the left wing. This, in turn, entails the programme of economy requiring state and international organisations’ intervention, pro-ecologic fiscal and legal regulations, and finally the establishment of the world government. Supporters of such changes argue that only then is there a chance to stop the global destructive rivalry, struggles for raw materials and toxic industrial waste export to the poor countries. Only then will the introduction of fair trade and eradiation of the above-mentioned anthropogenic reasons of global warming, along with the implementation of the ideal of „sustainable development” seem plausible. However, numerous questions which might be asked here still lack good answers, e.g. “Who could establish such world government?” or “Whose business would this government represent?”, “Is not the idea of „sustainable development”, by chance, used by the West to maintain their world dominant position by lowering economic growth in the poorer countries?”, “What does fair trade mean?”, or “May subsidies and protectionism assumed by fair trade be called fair?”. Many experts on sustainable development do not ask such questions but meanwhile, countries like Poland and Tanzania, with extensive socialist experience should certainly make the researchers of both these countries take a cautious approach to adopting and realising unverified ideas, even so correct in their general objectives as the idea of „sustainable development”. Authors of this book do not relate to the above-mentioned general problems, though in their detailed studies of certain cases they tackle the questions provoking disputes and controversies. Thus, I have decided to view them in a wider context so as to better comprehend their meaning. One example of such texts, falling both into the context of struggle for ecological balance and the above-mentioned social justice, is a paper written by a young researcher Evelyn Paraboy Kaney and her friend Katharine Farrell. It �12 Introduction examines the Maasai in Tanzania who face problems with access to pastureland and water for their cattle in the context of fast expansion of agriculture, which according to the authors, poses a threat to their survival. The Maasai are forced to resign from the mobility of livestock in favour of ranch farming. The Maasai, however, as the researchers underline, do not approve of such solutions as mobility of livestock (connected with migratory cattle breeding) is the key element of their identity. Hence, the authors representing their interests put forward solutions allowing the possibility of legal changes and state support aimed at conservation of pastureland of the Maasai and access to water for their cattle, and even at establishment of pastoral reserves resembling national parks. On one hand, critical analysis of this exceptionally interesting paper allows for the ascertainment, as already proved, that migratory cattle breeding is one of the most ecological ways of using pastureland and to a certain extent fits in the idea of sustainable development6. On the other hand, however, it is not true that it constitutes the necessary prerequisite to maintain the Maasai identity. The authors are not the first researchers to herald fast extinction of the Maasai7, whereas the Maasai people set a good example of extraordinary well-developing ethnic group. In fact, other clusters, influenced either by western-like globalisation or Islam, faster lose their identity in Tanzania, often to the benefit of the Maasai by adopting their identifying patterns8. It may be also observed that 6 Numerous studies on pastoral communities confirm this fact. See, e.g.: A.B. Smith, Pastoralism in Africa: origins and development ecology, London – Ohio – Johanesburg 1992. 7 Amin, Mohamed, Duncan, Willetts and John, Eames, The last of the Maasai, London, Bodley Head, 1987. 8 Examples are set by ethnic groups of the East Africa such as: Mukogodo, Sonjo, Saleita, Lanat, Turkana, Rendille and Akie. See Lee Cronk, From Mukogodo to Maasai. Ethnicity and Cultural Change in Kenya. Harvard, Westview Press, 2004. �Introduction 13 a lot of Maasai people no longer breed cattle for a living. They shift to the widely understood sphere of services not only in tourism, but also in administration and education, like Evelyn Paraboy Kaney. Thus, neither extensive cattle breeding in its existing form nor life in a reserve seems to be a dream of all the Maasai people. However, in the context of confrontation with farmers and in view of scarcity of traditional open-access resources it seems right to ask a question whether pastoralists should continue defending their practices or they would rather find more modern methods to defend their business? Neither nationalisation of the common-property resources, tried during Tanzanian socialism, nor privatisation of pastureland and ranch farming, postulated nowadays, seem to be appropriate solutions. A better solution embracing tradition and modernity, nomads and farmers would be the implementation of the idea of collective society and governing the common-property resources by local communities, pursuant to the theory of Elinor Ostrom9? Next, in my article, I examine consequences resulting from the inflow of refugees to certain African countries and their stay in special refugee camps. In regions where such settlements are set up, numerous conflicts between the newcomers and the indigenous people occur. Such places set a good example of emergency when different types of deficit, devastation or ecological imbalance appear and form the basis for discourse on the sustainable development. In this context a question arises what should be done so that the host countries could on one hand protect refugees and on the other hand resist the negative impacts of their influx on the whole environment, which usually happens in the regions not prepared for welcoming such a great number of people. In other words, how to stay loyal and faithful to the postulate of defending Elinor, Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge, 2009. 9 �14 Introduction human rights and at the same time not to cause disasters violating these rights? To answer the above questions I would like to present the thesis endorsed by UNHCR stating that the inflow of refugees does not deepen the poverty of the host countries but brings them benefits. Thanks to this phenomenon local economy starts to thrive in neglected regions and the very refugee camps become suitable areas to test new ecological technologies promoting sustainable development. Are not these arguments, however, given mainly because of the interests of the aid organisations whose main objective is to bring the refugees together? It seems fairly obvious that such camps, similar to shantytowns, contradict the idea of „sustainable”. Negative reactions of some conference participants (who already knew this problem) to these proposals suggest that their doubts are not groundless. The authorities of the host countries should, in line with the idea of sustainable development, not only object to the attempt of introducing development projects (including even those pro-ecological ones) in the vicinity of refugee camps, but not allow for setting up the camps. This approach does not mean opposing the idea of welcoming refugees but abandoning the idea of creating big clusters. A more pro “sustainable” idea would be to scatter them by promoting the so called autonomous settlement in rural and urban areas (where refugees melt into the local communities), like in e.g. Cameroon or Uganda. Unfortunately, UNHCR and authorities of the host countries usually do not approve of this idea. The mainstream anthropological studies also embrace issues connected with the use of the so called indigenous knowledge10 The term, in the above-discussed meaning, was popularized by D. M. Warren in the 1970-s.; D.M.Warren, Comments to Paul Sillitoe’s „The Development of Indigenous Knowledge: A new Applied Anthropology”, “Current Anthropology”, 39(2), 1998, pp. 244–245. The terms: local knowledge and folk knowledge are synonymous. 10 �Introduction 15 for the idea of sustainable development. It is defined as local or folk knowledge on unique technologies, characteristics of various organisms and general knowledge on environmental issues and dependence relationships, including religious beliefs. These questions were examined in the study by Sosthenes Ruheza, who along with his colleagues (Z.A. Mattee, E.E. Chingonikaya and Z. Kilugwe) from the Agricultural University Sokoine from the city of Morogoro, conducted exceptionally interesting ethno-botanic studies on the significance of indigenous knowledge system in sustainable management and the use of forests in the Nguru Mountains. Majority of the Nguru Mountains inhabitants, according to the authors, believe in sacred nature of the environment they live in. Moreover, in line with cultural heritage of these tribes, traditional customs and beliefs help to protect nature. They include, among others, prohibitions on intensive farming and destroying „sacred forests” inhabited by the deceased ancestors or possessing supernatural forces affecting people living in the close vicinity. It is a great taboo to pick up certain wild plant species or cut „sacred trees”, as this could lead to curse, disease or death. Bans embrace killing and eating meat of certain rare or harmless animals, which are perceived as sacred. The researchers concluded that when people working in local reserves have no ability to efficiently protect the environment, religious beliefs of indigenous people should not only be taken into consideration but also practically used in the sustainable management of the local natural resources. Indigenous people believe that God created all living creatures and a man does owe him due respect. It raises hope that thanks to their faith it is possible to save the biodiversity of the local environment. Recommending this article I wish the authors had extended their studies and included additional presentations on bio-prospecting, i.e. the use of local wild plants. Nowadays, bio-prospecting belongs to the leading faculties of the applied anthropology covering studies of �16 Introduction indigenous knowledge system in search of useful components of living organisms to be used in pharmaceutical industry11. Already mentioned controversies over global climate changes constitute the central theme of the next article, written by Jerzy Gilarowski. It is one of the most crucial subjects in the studies of „sustainable development”, whose most enthusiastic supporters have since long favoured the reduction of carbon dioxide emission and decarbonisation of economies as the main drivers of global warming. The author refers to this theory and analyses the increase of average temperatures over the last 150 years, without overcomplicating, however, anthropogenic nature of the reasons. Instead, he highlights the scope of global warming symptoms occurring in the natural environment, asking the question whether, as many scholars argue, global warming is in fact lower in equatorial regions than in temperate and polar climates. Research which he conducted aimed to explain this issue at least in the context of Tanzania, located in equatorial region. Students, their parents and grandparents were to answer a set of questions regarding changes taking place in their closest environment over the last 30 years. The results confirmed the author’s doubts as ¾ of respondents actually observed negative changes in their environs, mainly with regard to climate and soil fertility. According to the author, environmental changes are likely to occur in the future so he warns that Tanzania will have to adjust to them its agriculture and system of water management. Commenting on the above theses it should be stressed that research regarding memory and evaluation of the past, although very interesting indeed, should always be analysed with some margin of error. Human memory is selective and the See, inter alia, J.M. Finger & P. Schuler, Poor People’s Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries, Washington 2004; D.A. Posey, (Re) Discorvering the Wealth of Biodiversity, Genetic Resources, and the Native Peoples of Latin America, „Anales Nueva Epoka”, 2002, (5), pp. 37–60. 11 �Introduction 17 process of recollecting the past is accompanied by emotions and lack of distance, which results in a tendency to idealise it, in line with the philosophy that ”life was much better in the past”. Still, the number of respondents (250 people) and the study having been conducted twice, prove its credibility. Obviously, as I have already mentioned, it should be remembered that the recorded changes in certain natural environments of Tanzania do not demonstrate that the main reason is e.g. the emission of carbon dioxide. The leading theme of the next article, written by Flora O. Kasumba and Robert Lukelo, is „overproduction” of higher education graduates in Tanzania. The problem highlighted by the authors, present in majority of the developed countries12, was until recently hardly recognizable in the developing ones. The fact that it proceeded so fast in countries like Poland and Tanzania may come as a surprise. It mainly stems from over-evaluation of higher general education and underestimating the significance of various technical skills; sublimating a high school diploma as the only path to individual career and a better life, and the same as a driver of the country’s development. In the past it was common knowledge that graduating from university guaranteed a highly desirable stable job with a state employer. Nevertheless, various high schools diplomas have become so commonplace that nowadays majority of employers opt for concrete vocational experience and qualifications rather than general education, not to mention humanistic or economic specialisation. The country’s development naturally depends on highly qualified experts but they do not necessarily include thousands of graduates, who except having excessive ambitions, are not specialists in any concrete professions. Unfortunately, in the field of education even the slightest lack of temperance and raGermany is an exception in Europe as it develops technical faculties according to plan and intentionally limits the access of youth to higher education. 12 �18 Introduction tionality leads to crisis calling for the the philosophy of sustainable development. In this context, the authors show the situation in Tanzania where, similarly to Poland after liberalisation of higher education in the 1990-s, the number of high schools and their graduates have been on the increase. The alumni, however, have problems in finding the desirable job. Flora O. Kasumba and Robert Lukelo blame cultural factors and mismatch of school curriculums to the job market requirements. Alumni do not want to be selfemployed mainly because they lack the required qualifications, not to mention financial capacities. Thus, they strive to find positions in state-owned companies. Symbolic expression of their lot is the photo presenting 10 000 alumni gathered at the state stadium in Dar es-Salam in search of 70 vacancies. The authors wonder what they should do in this situation. What goals are achievable for them and how can they be reached? They raise an issue of social threats caused by millions of unemployed young people. They pinpoint the need of changes in the higher education sector and its sustainable development directed at introduction of new faculties and specialised skills (foreign languages, technical skills, team-work, problem solution, creativity and innovativeness). They also underline the possibilities of self-employment of alumni in agriculture, fishery, tourism and the use of other natural resources that Tanzania abounds in. Additionally, they highlight unused business potential in Tanzania mainly in the production of local goods and show how to accomplish these ideas by the alumni, with the help of their families and the state. Next article raises the issue of development assistance extended by the Catholic Church to the marginalized inhabitants of the Northern Cameroon in the context of their evangelization. The author, Fr. Jarosław Różański, does not refer, like the others in this volume, to the idea of „sustainable development”. Instead, he indicates the term of „human promotion” already recalled by �Introduction 19 the Pope Paul VI and referred to in the documents of the Second Vatican Council emphasizing that the term “human promotion”, which like the “secular” sustainable development is much broader than “progress” generally understood as technological or economic13. This concept entails Christian development which does not only aim to achieve higher economic growth but implies integral development of humanity, raising the standard of living and improving the overall human condition, not to the detriment of our environment. This standpoint, in line with the leading idea of this volume, was particularly emphasised by the Pope Francis in this year encyclical Laudato Sii’ („Praise be to you”)14, which thus far was the loudest attempt to attract attention to the problem of the degradation of environment caused, among others, by energetics of hard coal. Fr. Jarosław Różański underlines concrete development and charitable activities of the missionaries in the Northern Cameroon. Development aid encompasses the introduction of new crops, raising the living standards, building latrines, acquiring skills of housekeeping and money management, reforestation and prevention of desertification. Charity embraces: taking care of the poor families, “street children”, the displaced, the physically and mentally disabled and help in natural disasters. Moreover, integrity of development with evangelization assumes supporting local cultures by codification of grammatical rules of the local 13 Pope Paul VI expressed his opinion on this topic in apostolic exhortation Evangelii nuntiandii. The term refers to the higher theological argumentation presenting a man as chosen by God and affirming his special role in the creation and assumption that evangelization and human promotion, i.e. development and liberation are interlinked. See: J. Różański, Misje a promocja ludzka, Warsaw 2001, p. 25. 14 The name of the Encyclical refers to the prayer by the Saint Francis of Assisi Canticle of the Sun or the Praise of the Creatures, Cracow 2005, p. 348. �20 Introduction languages, implementation of the alphabet and publications in the local languages along with establishing reputable catholic schools. The last three articles are devoted to the economic context of the discussed issue. They directly or indirectly regard the so called “sustainable business” or “corporate social responsibility”. The terms embrace a certain philosophy being a response to challenges of the idea of sustainable development15. It is also defined as responsible entrepreneurship searching for synergy among people, earth and profits; business, which in a long run, apart from environmental and social benefits, is to guarantee a long-term increase in the value of enterprises. It is assumed that taking the lead by entrepreneurs in sustainable business will contribute to growing attractiveness, competitiveness and credibility of their businesses. On the whole, the main goal is to enhance the business performance, i.e. undertake voluntary commitments in favour of natural environment and local communities, and reduce negative phenomena. Whereas, in reality the so called small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), referred to in above-mentioned articles, can boast about better performance than big business organizations as far as principles of sustainable business are concerned. One of the final papers, written by Ryszard Piasecki and Janusz Gudowski, commences with the elaboration of the theory of the so called Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) from the most advanced economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, assuming that such investments constitute the domain of the most powerful companies in the world. Competitive advantage of these multinational enterprises in the technical and organisational fields allows for their active business operations in the chosen countries. Meanwhile, we can observe an increasing investment activity of small and mediumOECD, Corporate Social Responsibility. Partners for Progress, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 2001 15 �Introduction 21 sized enterprises from the so called emerging economies from Asia, South America and Eastern Europe. It contradicts the theory and puzzles the economists dealing with these issues. Authors do not completely solve the mystery, postulating further research. They present, however, determinants and tendencies regarding the inflow of direct foreign investment to Sub-Saharan Africa (signalizing favourable factors and arising threats), and also list examples of Polish investments which have taken place in these markets until now. It seems that small and medium-sized enterprises, coming from emerging economies such as Poland, Turkey or India, are likely to enjoy a better future than multinational enterprises. In fact, they run a more sustainable business and generate lower costs. Moreover, they are better adjusted to African conditions (also in understanding poverty), more actively engage themselves in everyday life of local communities, know them better and are able to act in favour of them. In the penultimate article by Izabella Łęcka, from the perspective of reports of Economist Intelligence Unit16, the topic of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has been enriched by educational context. Admitting that SMEs play an essential role in the development of global economy mainly because they create most of new workplace all over the world, the author states that nowadays they face greater difficulties in globalised business environment. Thus, she attempts to answer the question of how enterprises from African countries can handle the international competition and expansion. According to Izabella Łęcka, it may be only achieved through the development of education and science, which has an Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) is a research and analysis division of the Economist Group (international media enterprise with its registered seat in London, specialising in providing information on international economic activity, forecasts and offering advisory services, preparing analysis, reports and economic forecasts). See the website of Economist Intelligence Unit, “Who we are”. 16 �22 Introduction indirect relationship with the increase of economic innovativeness. Nonetheless, the key factor of growth is the development of human capital and investment in science, which can be best exemplified by Asian countries which Africa should follow. In conclusions, the author underlines that there is an absolute necessity to develop small and medium-sized enterprises in African countries taking into consideration the increasing number of youth entering reproductive age. These nations should make every effort to create not only the most friendly business environment but also enhance the educational level of young citizens. This latest postulate stressing the importance of quantitative over qualitative factor seems to be of great significance as it harmonizes with the idea of sustainable development and theses already enunciated by Flora Kasumba and Robert Lukelo on overproduction of alumni in Tanzania, who neither create nor find jobs there. The volume ends with an interesting article by Kennedy Kibona and Benedict Shilla who conducted the study in Iringa Municipality aiming to assess the importance of saving as one of capital sources for SMEs in Tanzania. The researchers focused on the saving possibilities of owners and managers of such enterprises as these very savings constitute the main source of financing their further business activity. Their study showed that in Tanzania people aged between 26–31 years have accumulated the greatest amounts of savings. These people live in cities and have not set up their families yet or their families are very small (3–4 members). Such entrepreneurs are able to save daily the amount ranging from 10 to 20 thousand shillings (i.e. from 20 to 40 Polish zloty), which in local conditions constitutes the most in the group of SMEs owners. Age, place of living and a number of dependent family members are of key importance. It occurs that education does not play here a major role (most of these entrepreneurs do not have higher education). Similarly, gender, ethnicity and religion (although majority �Introduction 23 are Christians) do not matter. The authors prove, however, that crucial in further development of SMEs in Tanzania will be the access to seed capital and educational development. Thus, they postulate to follow the American pattern based on cheap crediting which should be supported by state. It means that the influence of global model of free market American capitalism is more and more commonplace in certain social processes, which leads to the dissolution of traditional family even so strong as the African one. It is tantamount to the following appeal: borrow money from the bank, insure yourself, break relations with your family and have fewer children. Only then will you be „happier”. Following this path will certainly result in a lower birth rate. Yet, is it still sustainable? To sum up, I would like to stress that the presented topics encompass only symbolic fragments of a vast array of issues regarding the idea of sustainable development. Its diversity, exemplified by this volume, proves the complexity and extent of the subject matter. Please note that as an editor I neither changed nor interfered with the forms and structures of the published papers. I presented them in a specific order, in line with the subject area outlined in this introductory section. Maciej Ząbek ��Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE Abstract This paper reports the preliminary results of an empirical study of farmers-pastoralists conflicts in Mbarali District in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The results are based on a combination of literature review and semi-structured interviews conducted with pastoralists in the villages of Matebete and Mwanavala. Studies of farmers-pastoralists conflicts are usually presented from the farmers’ perspective. In this study I explore the conflict from the pastoralists’ perspective, with the aim of finding ways to reduce conflicts among the farmers and pastoralists in the two case study villages of Matebete and Mwanavala, and to provide examples of how it may be possible to make laws for Tanzania that will allow the two groups to live in peace and harmony while sharing scarce resources. Conflict in Mbarali District has been increasing at an alarming rate over the past ten years with acts of violence against pastoralists and their Evelyn Paraboy Kaney – Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Management at the University of Mary in Fargo, North Dakota, United States of America. She is currently working for the Henry Jackson Foundation Medical Research International/Walter Reed Program as an Office Manager at Mbeya, Tanzania. Her research interests are economics of pastoralists and impact on the lives of pastoralists and others who are living in the rural areas of Tanzania. Katharine Nora Farrell – PhD is an Ecological Economist and Political Theorist. Senior Researcher and Assistant Lecturer, Chair of Resource Economics, Humboldt University of Berlin. �26 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell cattle becoming increasingly common. At first glance, this appears to be caused mainly by a scarcity of water associated with the drying up of the Great Ruaha River and Chimala River. However, we hypothesize, that a combination of increased rice farming activities and associated policies restricting the mobility of livestock are also contributing to the conflict. Where earlier practices included loose rules for informal shared land use, today, each village in the region is expected to have enough land and other resources to sustain its own livestock. Movement of livestock between villages is prohibited. In my study I explore how prohibiting the pastoralists to graze as they did before may be increasing the negative impacts that arise for both farmers and pastoralists and ask what land use rights would be fair and correct from the pastoralists’ perspective. Pastoralists started to settle in Mbarali District in 1952 and lived in the region for many years without conflict. My results suggest that progressive increases in the amount of land being used for rice cultivation, with the Kapunga Rice Project, Mbarali Estate and Madibira Rice Estates have changed the relationship between pastoralists and farmers. Before expansion, livestock drank water from the same rivers and crossed the same villages without conflicts. Today, many farms are found along the way to the river and pastoralists are charged both to take their cattle to feed on the residue of these farms and to access the river. Bringing cattle to feed on farm residue was previously viewed as a service. Today’s changed land use obliges pastoralists to move their livestock across these farms to access water. Key words: Maasai, pastoralists, farmers, cattle, access to water, mobility, conflict Introduction In recent years there has been great fear among the village pastoralists of the Mbarali District in Mbeya Region of Tanzania over government policies that do not favour pastoralists, which led to the eviction of pastoralists in the Mbarali District in 2006 and 2007. Both, the pastoralist inhabitants of Matebete and Mwanavala villages see these recent evictions as a threat to existence of pas- �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 27 toralism in the district. The evictions have come along with other changes that are being observed by pastoralists, such as massive increases in the farmed area in Mbarali District, expansion of the boundaries of the Ruaha National Park and prolonged droughts that have affected wet areas of Malenga Makali, Mapangala and Msanga. The use of grazing land in Msanga, Malenga Makali and Mapangala is more traditional, with the wet land being used for dry season pasture. Once pasture from these wards is exhausted, cattle are forced to move to the neighbouring villages to search for pasture and water. Pastoralists are obliged to pay farmers for the use of this land and there are violent conflicts occurring regularly as pastoralists try to use land without paying, and farmers try to demand payment for the use of land that was traditionally used by the pastoralists. Conflict is increasing in the region between pastoralists and farmers, the livelihood of Matebete village is threatened and Mwanavala will be threatened soon too. The study presented here aims to gain insight into what is causing the conflict and to identify ways in which the situation might be changed, in order for the pastoralists to continue living in the region in peace. The primary research was conducted by the first author in 2013 and 2014 in Mbarali, Mbeya. Structured and semi-structured interviews were carried out with pastoralists still living in the region, following the 2006 evictions and lands in the region were viewed. All interviews were conducted in Maa or Swahili. The decision to interview only pastoralists, not farmers, was made in an effort to shed light on this underrepresented perspective on the conflict. We agree that farmers have rights too and are not trying to be unfair. The economy of the farmers is well understood but that of the pastoralists is not. In addition, this is active violent conflict, in which pastoralists are treated as second class citizens and for her own safety the first author, who is Maasai, cannot go around asking these questions to the farmers �28 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell and officials. Had the environment been a peaceful one, we would have asked all three groups the same questions. In an effort to develop a better understanding of the pastoralist perspective on these conflicts, this study compares how the Mbarali evictions, the other changes and the current conflict are being experienced by pastoralists in the two villages of Matebete and Mwanavala. While they are similar in many ways, the people of Matebete have a title deed to the land of their village, whereas the people of Mwanavala do not. By focusing on the pastoralist perspective in these two villages, the study provides insight into the role and importance of possessing a title deed for the pastoralists. Matebete pastoralists were given a title deed for them to have permanent settlements and have a place for them to graze their cattle. It is crucial to point out that pastoralists had water for the cattle that flowed on the Msanga River until late September. Pastoralists’ survival was possible because of mobility. Grazing beyond the ranch during dry season was previously possible. Livestock moved to open lands outside the ranch. Over the past 20 years in the ranch and the lands around it many things have happened; open lands that were used by the pastoralists have been converted to rice farms piece by piece since the 1990-s. Many cattle are living in the ranch; the number is estimated to be more than 4,000 livestock. Conflict in Mbarali District has been increasing at an alarming rate over the past ten years with acts of violence against pastoralists and their cattle becoming increasingly common. At first glance, this appears to be caused mainly by a scarcity of water associated with the drying up of the Great Ruaha River and Chimala River. However, I hypothesize that a combination of increased rice farming activities and associated policies restricting the mobility of livestock are also contributing to the conflict. Movement of livestock between villages in Mbeya is prohibited. In my study I explore how prohibiting the pastoralists to graze, as they did before, may �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 29 be increasing the negative impacts that arise for both farmers and pastoralists and ask what land use rights would be fair and correct from the pastoralists’ perspective. Background of the Case Pastoralists started to settle in Mbarali District in 1952 and lived in the region for many years without conflict. Matebete pastoralists are currently facing conflicts with the farmers. The farmers grow rice during the rainy season. During the dry season they plant gardens along the Chimala River, a major source of water in the area. Different crops are planted such as tomatoes, vegetables and corn. Small irrigation channels are built for watering such gardens. When the livestock crosses the irrigation channels or steps into the gardens, farmers demand payments for destroying infrastructure (irrigation channels) or crops. The introduction of large irrigation channels for intensive rice production has created an opportunity for farmers to take water from these large channels into small channels that they can use to cultivate land in the dry season. During the field research for this study, a key difference between Mwanavala village and Matebete village was observed: farmers near Matebete village, Igumbilo, Ihahi and Kibaoni villages farm throughout the year near the river. Currently, there is no farming in Mwanavala village during the dry season. However, there is an irrigation channel that is being built under a joint venture with the government and the citizens of Rujewa, Ubaruku and Mwanavala itself. The irrigation channel is being built to solve the water problems affecting farmers in the area especially since the investor is not giving water to small farmers anymore. The government will contribute 80%, while the citizens will contribute 20%. I passed through their office called �30 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell Mwenda Mtitu Irrigation Cooperative. The irrigation project is called Mwenda Mtitu. After the completion of Mwenda Mtitu project, all farms that are not farmed will be farmed when there is water. Mwanavala pastoralists will also be in frequent clashes with the farmers in the area as gardens will be all over the place in the dry season. One thing that we know for sure is that livestock would never feed on dry grass or farm residue, while they can see green crops from a distance. In Mwanavala most of the conflicts are with the rangers at the Ruaha National Park. A similar problem will be evolving in Mwanavala once the irrigation scheme is built and fully operating. Farming throughout the year will be also carried out in Mwanavala. As a result, pastoralists in Mwanavala will face the same problem that pastoralists in Matebete village are facing. Where earlier practices included loose rules for informal shared land use, today each village in the region is expected to have enough land and other resources to sustain its own livestock. In Mbeya, Matebete is the only pastoralists’ village with its own title deed. There are three big rice farms, one owned by small scale farmers, second by an investor in a district and the third largest farm is co-owned by South African and Indian investors. These farms are located in a place where Maasai used to take cattle in the dry season and if they are caught there now, they must pay a heavy fine. In the surrounding areas small holding farmers are also growing rice in the wet season and vegetable in the dry season. These lands are also suitable for grazing but are now used for agriculture in the dry season thanks to irrigation. In 2006 government passed national livestock policy intending to get Maasai to settle down. But in dry season people have to move. If they move out to get water for cattle, then farmers demand money. But elsewhere in the northern parts like Arusha there have been many evictions going on, due to land being set aside for different investors. �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 31 1. Mbeya Region, Tanzania, Ihefu: Photo:Adam Mwarabu Fig. 1: Africa Map and the Villages of Matebete and Mwanavala – Google Earth 2013 �32 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell Fig. 2: The map of Mbeya – credit to Howard Stein in 2014 There are many changes that are affecting pastoralists now. In the past, pastoralists who were living in Matebete village used to take their cattle to Kapunga where the rice project is now located in plains like Lwanjili and many others. All those places have now been turned into agricultural land leaving little room for their cattle. The neighbouring villages, where we are taking our cattle for grazing now, were used for 1 or 2 months, a few months prior to the beginning of the rain season. The village of Matebete is in conflict with 1, 400 farmers who filed a case, case No. 17 of 2008, against pastoralists at the High Court Land Division in Mbeya. The farmers are claiming that they have rights to Matebete land. The case is still heard in the high court and is being conducted in Kiswahili and most of the documentation of the hearing is done in English. The Maasai could not follow. �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 33 Therefore, they decided to hire a lawyer. The farmers’ big interest in Matebete village is timber, firewood and land for growing corn. Originally, in areas surrounding Matebete pastoralists have agreed to exchange resources during dry season; farmers were allowed to collect dry firewood in Matebete area and pastoralists graze their livestock on fields in neighbouring farmers’ villages. Lupindu 2007 pointed out that the future of pastoralists in Mbeya District is uncertain. We agree with Lupindu that many factors are contributing to the decline in Mbarali and to an overall decline of pastoralism: for example, the decline of open lands to graze animals. Furthermore, Fratikin 2008 argued that pastoralists’ way of life is threatened by population growth, loss of herding land, ranches, national parks and urban growth. The lives are severely affected because of pressure from international development programmes. The programmes encourage privatization and individuation of land that was communally held. I agree with Fratikin that 50% of Mbarali District is now part of the Ruaha National Park. Tanzania National Parks in particular have brought sufferings to pastoralists. One key factor is clear that the total amount of land available for direct human use, for farming or pastoralism, is now substantially reduced. At the same time, the population of the region is increasing. The logic of the context is clear – more people, less land, increased competition. However, even after the loss of land to parks, which has happened again and again for many years, there was a time when conflicts were less frequent and now the conflicts have increased significantly. When the land, titled and open, was sufficient for livestock and now it is not; when informal use was allowed but now must be paid. The research aims to shed light on these new conflicts and how they may be resolved by asking what has changed around the pastoralists and also within the pastoralists, to give rise to these changes. Trying not to pay and have conflict instead of cooperation with farmers �34 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell and park officials, the research aims to ask, what changes in the situation could make it possible for the Maasai not to feel like they have to do these things. Methodology and Data In order to explore the conflicts from the pastoralists’ perspective, literature review, the research questions and semi structured interviews with sixteen pastoralists were undertaken. The interviews were designed to encourage deep conversation and to give pastoralists a chance to give details of their encounters with the farmers and how they have handled those conflicts. First, semi structured interviews were conducted in Matebete village and then they were carried out in Mwanavala village. The data collected was mainly about payment to farmers, whether agreements existed for those payments, the distance that farmers had to cover to get water for their animals in the dry season, right of pastoralists to access land, water and farm residue during the dry season. We chose to collect data by reading first what other scholars, who have researched and written about pastoral-farmers conflicts, had to say. While reading, I realized that the pastoral voice was actually missing in all the literature. That is the reason why the focus was given to the pastoralists only. They were the ones who were interviewed. Pastoralists are good at telling stories as theirs is an oral culture, so we kept the interview format as open as possible to create space for them to tell us about their experiences relating to grazing and the payments they are required to make to the farmers. Based on a combination of the original semi-structured interview questions, which are included in Appendix A, and the responses that were received during the interviewing sessions, six interview �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 35 topic Areas were identified, which have been used to code and process the interview data: Terms of grazing use agreements 1. When pastoralists cross their land and enter into other villages to graze their livestock, there are payments that farmers demand especially during the dry season 2. Pastoralists and farmers also enter into informal agreements at the beginning of the dry season for pastoralists to graze on farmers’ land 3. Title deed – it is a form of grazing use agreement that ensures rights to graze on the land for which the pastoralists holds a title Reciprocity – Fairness 1. Refers to how the society exchanged natural resources such as firewood, crop residue and fertilizers 2. Mutual benefits between the pastoralists and farmer communities Access to water 1. In the dry season pastoralists are forced to move from their land to Chimala and Ruaha rivers for livestock to drink water 2. There are streams and seasonal rivers allowing pastoralists to have water in their communities 3. Wells at Mwanavala – the wells are used by Sukuma and Sangu pastoralists. The pastoralists at Mwanavala, whose livestock is currently using the Ruaha river, are afraid that one day they will also find themselves in the same situation Land use change 1. Rice farming is increasing at a rapid pace in Mbarali District. Land that was formerly used for grazing is now used for rice farming leaving little room for pastoralists’ livestock to graze. Apparently, both villages are close to the heavily irrigated rice �36 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell farms. Matebete village is approximately 14 kilometres from the Kapunga rice farm while Mwanavala village is approximately 20 kilometres from Mbarali Estate rice farm. 2. National Parks expansion has been also expanded into pastoral lands by the United Republic of Tanzania under Tanzania national parks umbrella Mobility 1. Mobility is central to pastoralism; if there is no mobility the pastoralists’ ways of life is also under threat and will likely disappear 2. Pastoralists have used mobility as a technique to preserve the environment and take advantage of the dry lands Identity and politics 1. There is an argument at the national level that pastoralists destroy the environment with their herds by causing overgrazing and improper water falls to the great Ruaha River 2. Pastoralists identify themselves with herds of cattle. Cattle act as investment, security and a symbol of status in the society Table 1: Summary of General Profile of Interview Respondents (Some households were without a male head. 8 people were interviewed in Matebete village) Overview of Respondents female respondents male respondents household headed by a husband or brother household headed by a son 3 5 7 1 Matabete 1 7 6 2 Mwanavala average # of children modal # of wives average # cows average # cows per person in household 5 (6 of the 8) 1 77 10 5 (7 of the 8) 1 67 10 �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 37 Although the number of wives in the interview group is almost always 1, this is not the Maasai tradition. In many cases these one wife households had a second wife before but she had left. Maasai family has several wives, traditionally, and in the old days a man did not simply let a wife leave, but at the moment, if the man cannot support the woman and her children, he must let her leave if she can find a better place to live. The very low number of wives per household in these two villages is a clear indication that the communities are under survival threat. Results Currently Matebete village has 2 dams that were constructed for livestock to use during the dry season but none of them has ever worked. 2. One of the dams at Matebete village. Photo: Evelyn P. Kaney �38 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell 3. Wells used as a source of water for livestock and human beings at Mwanavala village. Photo: Evelyn P. Kaney The responses from the pastoralists interviewed in the two villages can be analysed as follows: Table 2: Analysis of Interview Responses. Selection of Typical Comments from Matebete Terms of Grazing Use Agreements Interview Topic Areas # and force Respondents’ # and force of Respondents’ Concern – Matebete Concern – Mwanavala Terms of Grazing 6 out of 8 Use Agreements (61 statements) 46% of total Reciprocity 4 out of 8 – Fairness (19 statements) 14% of total Access to Water 6 out of 8 (13 statements) 10% of total 6 out of 9 (7 statements) 9% of total 8 out of 9 (26 statements) 34% of total 8 out of 9 (17 statements) 22% of total �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE Land Use Change 8 out of 8 (14 statements) 10% of total Mobility 4 out of 8 (12 statements) 9% of total Identity 6 out of 8 and Politics (15 statements) 11% of total 39 5 out of 9 (10 statements) 13% of total 2 out of 9 (2 statements) 3% of total 7 out of 9 (14 statements) 18% of total We had not paid anything to the farmers until we chased the farmers away in our land. When they were chased away they were growing maize and groundnuts in our land. That was the time when they decided to turn us into a project that generates income. We decided that each group should stay on its land. That was also the time when the language of paying for using others’ land emerged. Access to Water We need reliable water dams in our area now so that we do not fight with farmers. Land Use Change There are many changes that are affecting pastoralist now. In the past, we used to take our cattle to the Kapunga where the rice project now is located and in plains like Lwanjili and many others. All those places have now been turned into agricultural land leaving little room for our cattle. Pastoralists pay farmers for using the land now. They make agreements with farmers and pay them a certain amount that both sides agree on. Payments differ from one pastoralist to another. Ideally, all payments depend on the agreements between them and farmers. There are no permanent agreements, only seasonal ones; for example from July to November. The interviewed pastoralists know the importance of the title. For example, Matebete pastoralists realize that the title that they have protected them from the Ihefu operation in 2006/2007 and �40 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell from Storm Evictions planned that took place from October 3 to November, 2013. Although the pastoralists in Mwanavala do not have a title deed, they understand benefits of the title very well. It protected pastoralists against evictions that have been going on in Mbarali District. Although the title deed acted as a shield to pastoralists against evictions, the titled area does not have the entire infrastructure to support the livestock so they do not cross borders. The title deed, as it was pointed out by people interviewed in Matebete, is a shield for the pastoralists against eviction. The operation that took place in Ihefu within the same district of Mbarali could have also affected the pastoralists in Matebete if they had not had a title. Respondents stated that they believe livestock should have access to feed on the farm waste because then livestock becomes healthy, grows and multiplies. Lack of the right to use the land will cause movements from one area to another, lack of permanent settlement, lack of education and important social needs. The advantage for pastoralists to have a right to use the land is that it gives them profits when they sell the livestock or crops. Pastoralists can also build houses, schools, worship centres and other important infrastructure such as the dams. Having a right to use land makes pastoralists economically well-off. One respondent said “I blame the government for dividing us. Boundaries have been placed between us, our product is livestock. When they say you should not go here, then it is difficult. The government is causing a fight because the farm does not move. The farmer was the first one to settle on water sources and on farms.” The farmers have farms on dry lands as they grow gardens during the dry season and have farms during the rainy season. If the pastoralists had land and plenty of water, they would not be fighting with their neighbours. Interviewees reported that in �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 41 October 2013, during a traditional ceremony when young boys were circumcised, and cows are usually slaughtered, it occurred that cattle large intestine was actually black. They believe this is because the animals were feeding themselves on the remaining burned residues. The farmers in villages surrounding Matebete came up with a language from the district that animals from one village should not be crossing over to other villages without permission. In October 2013, a few days following my interviews in Matebete, pastoralists who were living with their cattle in Igumbilo had to vacate Igumbilo immediately as there was an operation from the district. In Mwanavala we asked the people whether some farmers burn the residue after harvesting. The response was that very few farmers burn the farm residue. Progressive increases in the amount of land being used for rice cultivation, with the Kapunga Rice Project, Mbarali Estate and Madibira Rice Estates, have changed the relationship between pastoralists and farmers. I toured the Mbarali Estate in February 2013, with a group of researchers from the U.S, Denmark and Tanzania. My role was to only assist with language interpretation. I saw firsthand projects carried at Mbarali Estate. There was a chicken project, dairy project, a bakery, bottled underground water called Ihefu water and a store. The Mbarali Estate owner has prevented any water from going to any village or farmers around his farm. The relationship with the community that he lives in is seriously compromised. On Friday, December 6 on my way from Mwanavala village I saw a Land Cruiser that had full lights during day light. The car was speeding too. Perhaps, it was going 120 kilometres per hour. At first glance, I thought it was an ambulance going to pick up a sick person. But there were no sirens on the vehicle. I asked the taxi driver who was driving us what was wrong with the vehicle and what was happen- �42 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell ing? He told me that the vehicle belonged to Mbarali estate Chief Executive Officer. The driver pointed out that perhaps he went to pray at a Mosque in Rujewa town. He used to attend a mosque in Ubaruku town, the township near the farm. The driver went on to say he can no longer go to that mosque, nor pass along that route. I became more curious as to why he cannot set his foot in Ubaruku anymore. The driver mentioned that when the young CEO closed all water so that it does not go to the farms around him, the citizens of Ubaruku organized themselves and took their anger to the streets and eventually to the estate. They vandalized the buildings and distributed chickens that the investor was raising. The main reason for over-speeding and avoiding to set his foot in Ubaruku town is fear. He fears that his car will be stoned or logs and nails might be placed on his way. The driver went on to say that sometimes when the conflict gets intense, the investor gets on the helicopter and goes to Dar and comes back when things are cooler. The police were called to respond to the unrest at the Mbarali Estate. 4 out of 16 people interviewed in both Matebete and Mwanavala agreed to reduce the herd size if they were guaranteed the right to use land. Only men agreed to reduce the cattle, not women. The larger the herd, the more status one has in the pastoral society. Livestock serves many functions. It is used to pay dowry for the bride, to settle down payments such as when someone kills somebody. One pays cattle according to the identified body joints. Livestock is also used to treat sicknesses and when women give birth. Pastoralists in Matebete village worked for 5–7 kilometres for livestock to drink water while the pastoralists in Mwanavala village worked their animals for 8.5 kilometres. They work that distance due to lack of water and grass. Before expansion, livestock drank water from the same rivers and crossed the same villages without conflicts. Today, many farms �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 43 are found along the way to the river and pastoralists are charged both to take their cattle to feed on the residue of these farms and to access the river. Bringing cattle to feed on farm residue was previously viewed as a service. Today’s changed land use obliges pastoralists to move their livestock across these farms to access water. This fosters mistrust, resentment and conflict. Our interview results show a strong degree of frustration among pastoralists that the current situation is not properly recognised as one of mutual benefit – that there is no fairness and no reciprocity in the demands for payments. Instead, farmers and rangers are taking advantage of the opportunity to demand exploitative rent for use of the land, even just to cross the land to reach the water, or to use the water from the river, with pastoralists paying up to 250, 000 Tanzanian Shillings, equivalent to 156 United States dollars, for access to the river and farm residues and fines of up to 12,000,000 Tanzanian Shillings to rangers for crossing into the national park across boundaries that have not been made public. Discussion The research reported upon here has been guided by a set of eight specific research questions, which are used to structure the following discussion. These questions were developed based on a combination of reference to literature concerning relations between pastoralists and settled communities in east Africa, the author’s familiarity with the particular details of the Mbarali District conflict, and a series of preliminary field studies designed to help specify the research questions for this particular study of the conflict. 1. How is prohibiting the pastoralists to graze, as they did before the expansion of rice farms settlements, increasing the negative impacts that arise from pastoralists’ grazing? �44 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell – This is a tool that is being used to completely destroy the traditional way of grazing cattle – Pastoralists are now seen as a rebellious group, hence more tension with the farmers 2. What are land rights that would be fair and correct, that would allow the pastoralists to continue to live in Mbeya without conflicts? – Allowing them to graze in the farms after harvest free of charge, crop residue is important for the animals especially during the dry season – Payments to use the land and access water in the dry season should be abolished 3. How would making clear the needs of the pastoralists help in the process of achieving peace between them and the farmers? – Pastoralists like any other Tanzanians need land for grazing as they depend on livestock for survival. Land should be set aside in each village that pastoralists reside. The land should have clear boundaries. It should not be an open land which can be easily taken by the village government or entered by farmers for agriculture – The United Republic of Tanzania has set aside 40.5% of its land for wild animals and other conservations, it should also set aside land for pastoralists 4. Why do the Maasai pay farmers for access to land? – Pastoralists pay farmers for access to land so that their livestock can survive. At the moment this is the only survival technique as it is difficult to watch the animals die if they stay in the Matebete-Madungulu ranch where it is very dry and there is no water – The orders from above, central government, require each village to have livestock that it can handle. The farmers are standing on those orders; if such orders were not from there, �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 45 pastoralists would not have cared for them, either. In a way, they are afraid to break the law. 5. What are the costs and benefits to the pastoralists of these payments? – The costs are many to the pastoralists since there is no single place that they can recover the costs associated with paying farmers. The costs add up quickly for a year. A pastoralist might find himself paying up to 5,000,000 million per year – The benefit is that at least cattle are not left alone to die in the dry season. Although many pastoralists would not consider this a benefit. They would describe this as a means of putting ones head above the water so that they do not drown in dangerous waters 6. What are the costs and benefits to the farmers? – Farmers earn money that eventually helps them in the next farming season – The infrastructure such as the irrigation channels are repaired by pastoralists. Sometimes the farmers ask pastoralists to contribute for classrooms, building materials such as cement, sand etc. – The only cost to the farmers is that the resources are not shared equally. That is, most farmers do not get a share of the pastoralists’ contributions for using the land. These are only the leaders in the farming community who benefit the most, unless the farmers land is directly consumed 7. Could the pastoralists meet their mobility needs without using this land? – Currently, the pastoralists could not meet their mobility needs without using this land – The only way to meet their mobility needs without using this land would be proper infrastructure such as the dams at �46 Evelyn P. Kaney and Katharine N. Farrell the Matebete-Madunguru ranch for livestock to use during the dry season 8. What kind of law will be required to ensure that the pastoralists have the mobility they need? – A law that allows for mobility between villages in the dry season – Laws that are friendlier to the pastoralists are required and should be in the national constitution. Laws that recognize pastoralists as economic way of life for the pastoralists are required Conclusions Our research suggests that conflict in the region could be reduced if the prohibition on livestock mobility between villages was to be replaced by regulation that included fair and formal pricing of the services that this movement provides to both pastoralists and farmers. Previously, the farmers farmed only in the dry season. The situation changed cash opportunity as they can farm in the dry season. They have access to cheap fertilizers from the pastoralists’ livestock and cheap water. The cost of letting the pastoralists graze on farmers land has increased. The situation has turned pastoralists into the cash machine under the current system. Farmers have a good economic reason for demanding payments. Pastoralists cannot use land in the estates since it is private, cannot use farmers’ land either without paying. There is opportunity cost for the farmers at the local level. They have something to lose, vegetables and other crops, if pastoralists were to put their animals on the farms during the dry season. This is clearly acknowledged that pastoralists no longer have the land to graze on. There is no end to conflicts between farmers and pastoralists in Mbarali District. �MOBILITY AS A PASTORALISTS’ SURVIVAL TECHNIQUE 47 The pastoralists need to have land of their own with proper infrastructure in place to sustain their livelihood. References Askew K.F., Maganga F. and Odgaard R. (2013), Of land and Legitimacy: A Tale of Two Lawsuits, “Africa”, 83 (01), pp. 120–141. Charnley, S. (1996), Pastoralism and demise of communal property in Tanzania: A case from Usangu plains of Tanzania, “Cultural Survival”, 20 (1), pp. 41–44. Fratkin, E., (2001), East African Pastoralism in Transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases, “African Studies Review”, vol 44, pp. 1–25. Kachika, T., (2009). Land Grabbing in Africa: A Review of the Impacts and the possible Policy Responses, Tanzania-Senegal. Lupindu, A., (2007), Pastoralists in Mbeya District of Tanzania and their perception of the national livestock policy, MSc thesis, Wageningen University. Moritz, M., (2002), The Demise of the Nomadic Contract: Arrangements and Rangelands under Pressure in the Far North Cameroon: “Nomadic Peoples”,vol. 6 Issue 1. Msuya, A.J., (2009), Analysis of Pastoralists and Farmers in Northern part of Tanzania form land Administration perspective, bmw. Ndaskoi, N., (2009), Pastoralism on the horns of a dilemma. A case study of Tanzania, A Report of Consultancy Commissioned by PINGOSForum, Draft August 2009. Shettima, A., & Tar U., (2008). Farmer-Pastoralist Conflict in West Africa: Exploring the Causes and Consequences, “Information, Society and Justice”, vol. 1.2, June 2008. ��Maciej Ząbek REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE OR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Abstract Refugees impose a variety of economic, environmental and security burdens on host countries, but also embody a significant flow of resources in the form of international humanitarian assistance, economic assets and human capital. This article explores the challenges and opportunities for African local communities arising from the double impact of refugees – generated resources and security problems. It argues that the potential benefits for the local people go beyond the burdens imposed by a mass influx. Moreover, refugee camps become a field of competition for various developmental projects because many aid organizations work there. It encourages the use of innovative tools and new technologies including projects supporting the idea of sustainable development. Refugee resources and security threats potentially provide long-term gains, and, by compelling the state to strengthen its grip on border areas, enable the state to “harden” its presence there. However, for host states to realize the potential of refugee resources and continue hosting refugees, they must be assisted by appropriate humanitarian programmes. Key words: Refugee camps, developmental projects, international humanitarian assistance. Maciej Ząbek – Professor, PhD in ethnology, Head of Ethnology and Transcultural Studies at the Institute of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, University of Warsaw. His fields of research are: political anthropology and Refugee Studies. The areas of interest are: Africa and the Middle East. �50 Maciej Ząbek 1. Kakuma camp. Kenya. Photo M. Ząbek * * * Refugee camps in Africa resemble great villages of provisional, primitive habitations. They are located far from the cities, intentionally isolated and not easily accessible for strangers, like leprosaria in the past. The sight of them does not arouse associations with development and much less with sustainable development. The striking poverty of them causes a common belief that refugees even deepen economic problems of the countries they enter, not to mention the threat for the local environment. On the other hand, however, according to the international discourse, there are arguments supporting the statement that refugee camps1 may constitute the source of benefits for the local communities, like in 1 K. Jacobson, The Economic Life of Refugees, Kumarian Press, Boston 2005. �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 51 the works of Karen Jacobson, an American researcher of refugees. They emphasize that the settlement of refugees in rural areas brings benefits to the local economy as it may boost it especially in the neglected or less urbanized areas. Actually, such examples may be found in the wealthier countries. Whether this is the case of the poor countries remains a problematic issue. However, such a question should be asked because, following Robert Chambers, the British expert on the developmental problems, all literature concerning humanitarian aid is refugee-centred. The vast majority of refugee-related research concentrates only on them. Almost nobody focuses on the problems which refugees constitute for the host countries. Refugees are mentioned only in the context of their integration with the communities in the target countries2. Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to show the importance of the refugee influx for the economy of the host communities and answer the question about the resulting profit and loss balance3. * * * Refugee camps in Africa are created within the international humanitarian aid in order to ensure protection and maintain lives of refugees from the neighbouring countries, usually hit by the armed conflicts, as well as exiles fleeing from bombings, pogroms, massacres, famine, violence and rape. The above mentioned aid includes two basic types: the first type means provision of food and medicine, whereas the second one means provision of materials and human resources necessary 2 Robert Chambers, Hidden Losers? The impact of rural refugees and refugee programs on poorer hosts, “International Migration Review”, 1986, 20, 2: 245–63. 3 I mainly refer to the works of Robert Chambers (1989) and Karen Jacobson (2002), devoted to the defence of opposing theses on the economic influence of refugee camps on host communities, and my own research studies carried out in Kenya, in Kakuma and Dedaab. �52 Maciej Ząbek to render medical, educational and safety services. Aid is provided by in three ways: bilaterally – on the basis of international agreements, through international organizations (mainly by the High Commissioner on Refugees of the United Nations – UNHCR) and through the non-governmental organizations (NGOs). There are two ways of providing such aid: the first one includes material aid (provision of goods, specialists and services), the second one means financial aid (provision of necessary funds for the purchase of the above goods). Generally speaking, more than five hundred different NGOs all over the world, acting in cooperation with and on commission of UNHCR, are devoted to humanitarian assistance for refugees. Refugee camps may be of different size, ranging from 2 thousand people like the Mauritanians in Senegal, to 100 thousand people or more like the camps of Sudanese in Kenya. In practice, the huddles of refugees may be even larger because they sometimes form clusters of camps around one humanitarian base, like the camps around Goma in Congo which gave shelter to about 750 thousand of refugees during the 1990-s. Shelters are typically temporary and makeshift. Almost everything in camps is unsteady. In spite of this, they may sometimes exist 20 years or even more. Long-term wars in their home countries prevent refugees from returning home. Even if the conflicts stop, they have often nowhere to return to. One may also suspect that NGOs have their vested interest in the camps’ long-term existence. Humanitarian crises which lead to the creation of them require prompt action. However, it may be later observed that further action slows down, as a result of which the camps continue to exist in a state of a perpetual stopgap. The solution to the problem of refugees is first and foremost seen in their repatriation and finally in their resettlement to the third countries (i.e. west immigrant countries), not in their integration, as it is not the intention of the host countries. Thus, living conditions in the camps are not im- �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 53 proved above the necessary minimum equivalent to mere survival and prevention of epidemic outbreaks. UNHCR, established in the form of the international refugee regime, is responsible for the camps administration, logistics, searching for sponsors and coordination of aid-connected activities. The organization cooperates with the host departments of internal affairs to maintain safety of the refugees. The NGOs, including also church organizations, are directly responsible for executing aid operations. A camp is created in such a way that firstly an unoccupied site is fenced (e.g. 2–3 hectares) by means of thorny trees and barbed wire. Then, the area is equally divided into the so called blocks for several hundred refugees. The sections are also fenced with thorny branches, equipped with latrines and partitioned with internal roads for the police cars, medical ambulances or transport. After being registered, each refugee receives about 10 meters of foil, a pole, a metal bed with a mattress and a square in size of 4 square meters where they may settle and build their shelters. The above-mentioned shelters are constructed in various styles typical of the residing cultures, mainly with the use of sheet metal, old clothes and UNHCR bags. In Kenya, the Somalians erect light constructions in the form of domed huts which are covered with foil and UNHCR bags, while the Ethiopians form their habitations out of clay. Such shelters are equipped with metal beds and mattresses, two pots and some old clothes. In front of the entrance there is a fireplace to cook the dishes. In these refugee-like “cities” people try to lead normal lives despite great difficulties. A camp becomes a place of business, cultural, educational and sport activity. People conclude trade transactions and cultivate craft (such as weaving, tailoring, carpentry, sheetmetal work, and shoemaking). There are stalls, marketplaces, restaurants and bars, whore houses, workshops, slaughterhouses, �54 Maciej Ząbek schools, sports fields, hospitals, temples of various Christian denominations, mosques and pagan holy places. All these institutions work regularly although their economic profitability is highly uncertain. It mainly depends on the inflow of funds from the outside, from NGOs which employ and remunerate refugees. Thanks to this income, they are able to build their shelters out of better materials and employ other refugees. They can also invest in small stalls with vegetables in the market, the tailor’s shop, the hairdresser’s or the photographic studios. Additionally, NGOs set up special programmes called “operations generating profits”. Primarily, they include workshops producing regional goods which may be sold to e.g. UN representatives visiting refugee camps. Obviously, it is not a real market. The main point is to keep up appearances of work or maintain the sense of social usefulness among refugees. A more substantial profit is generated by neighbours of refugee camps. Inhabitants of those close or remote cities come to such a camp like to the city where they can buy products and services they cannot purchase in their home areas. Camps also attract relatively wealthy, as for the local conditions, professional traders, dealers and owners of big herds of livestock, and clan chiefs who can make deals there. Still, only thanks to such an international “cash injection” this primitive camp economy for refugees may thrive and each decision related to them, taken even so far away as in New York, Geneva or Nairobi, has a direct impact on it. Refugee camps are often compared to cities4, mainly in the meaning of a big collective of people forming a complex social and economic structure on a relatively small territory. On the other hand, however, they only resemble the so called “cities” being 4 M. Agier, Aux Bords du monde, les réfugiés, Flammarion, Paris 2002, s. 112. �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 55 potential places where basic institutions, typical of standard cities, perform on a primitive level, undeveloped and temporary. To that effect, these cities contradict the common connotation of solid and indestructible places offering facilities unavailable outside the city. Tumult and constant movement prevail in the main streets and marketplaces. A camp like a city has its arteries for people and goods, its pulse and its “heartbeat”. It may be observed that people living there show a certain kind of entrepreneurship, activity and inclination to work. Unfortunately, for majority of camp inhabitants there is no opportunity to work. Once one enters a particular block in the camp, one may notice that most refugees have nothing to do. Their poverty seems to be not only of economic but also of social and psychological nature. The great extent of their poverty results mainly from isolation and almost entire lack of social and professional activity. Waiting for food occupies most of refugees’ time. Food is sometimes the only sense of existence, like a currency convertible into everything, is the sole topic of conversations, the cause of fights and life-and-death struggles. Food is also a source of conflicts between refugees and locals, as refugees sometimes arrive during periods of food scarcity. In a reverse situation, however, when there is plenty of food, it may become a perfect integration tool between local and new communities. * * * Locals hardly ever perceive refugee camps in their neighbourhood as greatly beneficial. They are usually in minority as compared with the population of refugees and often suffer greater poverty than refugees themselves. Their only contact is during shopping in marketplaces and main streets of the camps. They have to compete with the newcomers about work, food, place of living and money. They are often exposed to: the threat of epidemic (prosti- �56 Maciej Ząbek tution spreads in camps which may directly result in the epidemic of AIDS), the risk of influx of rebels together with refugees and potential outbreak of riots on their territories. Cases of murders occurring through the fault of both sides fuel mutual conflicts. Serious troubles are caused to the locals mainly by unprotected camps (or badly protected ones) located in border regions. They often fall victims to plunderers and various gangs, like on the Kenya – Somalia border. Organised crime and rebels are often recruited from young and bored men staying in camps. Moreover, together with refugees there also come economic emigrants who try to gain humanitarian aid appropriated for refugees. Great difficulties in differentiating between refugees and people who personate them cause that criminals and rebels often end up together in refugee camps. It sometimes happens that rebels or criminal gangs take control over the whole camp as it took place in the camps of the Rwanda refugees in Congo. Additionally, host countries face problems with refugees who run away from camps and after entering the cities of host countries start begging in the streets, stealing in order to survive or arms trafficking. Furthermore, refugees distract the local authorities’ attention from local affairs and problems. These authorities, just as UNHCR and NGOs often focus only on refugees. On the one hand, this seems to be the correct approach because refugees suffer most and it is hard not to concentrate on them and not to pay them special attention which they certainly deserve. However, natives also demonstrate their own needs and expectations which often go unnoticed. Officials visiting local leaders always mention the need to give refugees a warm welcome, ignoring problems of the local community. It also happens that locals leave the camp environs in despair as it often comes to open tensions between one group of the poor receiving supplies and another group of the disadvantaged who do not. The sense of injustice among the local tribes is expressed �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 57 in hostile attitude towards refugees growing in the course of time. Besides, natural environment becomes greatly devastated around camps. Local infrastructure is strained, mainly owing to excessive use of roads, airports and hospitals, especially in the first period of the camp existence. The presence of refugees also exerts an indirect impact on the social relations among the locals. Youth and people with initiative, who decided to start their own business operations, become richer and gain significantly higher status than the older generations. Family relations between husbands and wives worsen, especially because of flourishing prostitution and trade being taken over from women as a more lucrative business than in the past. Accordingly, the dominant5 thesis prevails that local communities, especially the poorest groups, considerably lose because of the influx of the refugees. * * * On the other hand, as I mentioned in the beginning, there are arguments that international aid organized for the refugees staying in camps helps to develop local infrastructure and finally not only levels undesirable phenomena but also constitutes the source of development for the local communities. Even if it does not occur immediately after the camp ceases to exist, the infrastructure becomes accessible to the locals. Despite the fact that majority of camp outbuilding is of temporary character, it is to be noticed that new houses, schools and hospitals of bricks are sprouting up in places where they have not existed before. The level of education and medical care are on the increase and new agricultural projects start there. Refugee camps become a field of competition for various developmental projects because many 5 R. Chambers, op.cit. �58 Maciej Ząbek aid organizations work there. It encourages the use of innovative tools and new technologies including projects supporting the idea of sustainable development. It mainly refers to renewable energy, installation of solar panels to light particular sections as well as the whole camp, tapping water from the wells or cookers. There are also recorded examples of the use of wind energy in Ethiopia and biogas. Biogas in the form of ethanol is made from confectionary industry waste. Filters for river water purification are also built near some camps. In Sudan, for example, one of the refugees had even come up with an idea how to use scrap and waste to make a radio, TV or solar energy device. Thus, it may be strongly supposed that in the long term locals will gain more benefits from the stay of refugees on their territories than they will suffer losses.6 2. Batalimo. Central African Republic. Economic activity in the camp. Photo M. Ząbek K. Jacobsen, Can Refugees Benefit the State? Refugee Resources and African Statebuilding, “The Journal of Modern African Studies”, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 40, No. 4 (Dec., 2002), pp: 577–596. 6 �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 59 It should be admitted that refugee camps become in fact a trigger point for development and succession of changes to take place in the region. Various products and items provided to camps within humanitarian aid, often find their way to local marketplaces through commercial exchange. In order to diversify their food, refugees buy fruit and vegetables from locals, selling them in exchange cleaning staff, plates or clothes received from humanitarian aid. Most of all, crowds of several hundred thousand generally poor people constitute quite a large market for goods sold in Kenya. Besides, not all refugees are completely poor and economically passive. Some of them have raised funds they can invest in setting up cafes, workshops or agricultural farms. There are also people who were already well-educated with defined qualifications, thanks to which they can offer their skills to local community. In Ghana, for example, well-educated and enterprising Liberian refugees noticed numerous needs of the locals and started their own small businesses on the basis of them. By contrast, many uneducated refugees are often abused by locals as a cheap workforce. In Tanzania, refugees located among the locals aroused their big dissatisfaction when they suddenly decided to leave and settle autonomously in another place mainly because hosts were forced to do works earlier performed by refugees. So, despite common reluctance between refugees and locals they sometimes get together and integrate themselves. There are even some cases of marriages between refugees and locals. In previous years, farmers in Tanzania, Sudan or Guinea welcomed refugees with open arms. It happened so not only for the reason of untrustworthy hospitality or altruistic approach of local Africans but because refugees constituted for them the source of profits. In Sudan, an owner of a big agricultural farm near Gedaref, employing 250 workers, praised their work by saying that before they came he had been forced to spend long hours recruiting workers and paying them high wages. Since refugees from Erytrei flew, he has �60 Maciej Ząbek been in a position to pay them less, while at the same time they are more flexible as they have no other alternative to find a better job. However, using refugees as a cheap workforce depends on the situation. When the demand for farm workers is high, local people object to refugees leaving their territories. Nevertheless, in periods of drought and famine refugees are made redundant. In reverse situations, a refugee camp may become a place of work for the locals. It is well illustrated in Kakuma, in Kenya where local people living in considerably worse conditions than refugees were employed in a camp to carry water or collect firewood so as to improve their standard of living. Thus, refugee camps may constitute for locals both the source of a cheap workforce as well as an additional source of income, like in the case of Kenyan Turkana. * * * Providing long-term help to refugee camps requires from international organizations investments in infrastructure: construction of roads and bridges, airport buildings and development of thorough logistics. Furthermore, UNHCR, leading the policy aiming to mitigate conflicts with the locals, deliberately invests in the region in the construction of new water supplies and new schools not only for refugees, but also for the hosts. Hospitals, clinics and medical care developed in refugee camps are also available to indigenous people. Moreover, the quality of medical care and education in refugee camps is often on a higher level than local one and thus hosts try to enter camps and benefit therefrom. In reality, in the first months and years of the refugee inflow both pharmaceuticals and places at schools in the territories around camps remain usually scarce. Local people have to share everything with refugees until new schools and wells are built. In such situations neither part gains. With time, however, new facilities, roads and wells appear mainly because these types of investments prove to be the easiest �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 61 to verify and sponsors eagerly allocate money on them. Besides, they are treated as one element of the integration policy between locals and refugees. If there were no refugees, nobody would even think of investing in such facilities in border or poor regions of these countries. In the long run, local people gain from such investments because, thanks to refugees, external sponsors spend money on them. In Uganda, Kibanda region, circa 40% of humanitarian aid was granted to local people in order to mitigate conflicts between host people and refugees. Similarly, in Tanzania, Kigoma region, a special investment programme was launched to improve infrastructure of the region. This would not have happened but for the refugees. Investments, initially channeled for refugees, after their repatriation to the third countries, remain and are entirely taken over by local communities. In 1995, for example, UNHCR gave to the Malawi government schools, hospitals and vehicles worth about 35 million dollars whereas additional 78 million was transferred for the purpose of removing environmental damages which took place at the time of refugee camps’ existence. In fact, in the beginning, refugees use resources such as water or firewood “free of charge” from the local natural environment, which leads to impoverishment and imbalance of the natural resources economics. The role of the international organizations is to reduce such degradation through the development of proper infrastructure and higher crop quality thanks to which the local standard of living will also increase. Land cleaning and recovery of natural environment are usually sponsored by international agencies in close cooperation with the local governments. Additionally, help is provided to farmers whose crops were destroyed by refugee camps. Next advantage in the list of benefits for the local people is a numerous staff of foreign organizations. To cater for the needs of the wealthy clients new shops, hotels, bars and restaurants are �62 Maciej Ząbek opened in the neighborhood. Job vacancies await the qualified medical care, education or accounting staff. Local drivers and security guards will also find a job in refugee camps. * * * Nevertheless, even the greatest optimists realize that positive effects of refugee camps are not always unambiguous. During refugee camps’ close-down the infrastructure is often destroyed. It is often an intentional step so that refugees quickly return to their home countries. Thus, local people inherit hardly anything from the refugee camps. Besides, stay of refugees may at one time lead to the increase in food prices in the closest areas of refugee camps or decrease in food prices another time. Everything depends on various factors: good or poor harvest, season of the year, or the extent to which refugees are used by local farmers as a cheap workforce. Price increase leads to the situation where the poorest local people cannot afford to buy food whereas decrease in prices results in a dramatic drop in income of those farmers who dedicate production surplus to the market. Anyway, local people always put the blame for this situation on refugees. Besides, refugee camps are always, as I already mentioned, source of problems related to safety and reluctance of the local governments and local people. * * * To conclude, major threats resulting from refugee camps include, on the one hand, higher expectations towards bureaucracy of the host countries visible in their management of local environment resources being within the range of refugees and securing them for the local people. On the other hand, they include growing requirements towards security agencies connected with potential rise in the crime rate of the region. Problematic issues are also deepened by ubiquitous corruption prevailing among local admin- �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 63 istration staff trying to use international aid so as to meet their own needs. Generally speaking, economic effects of the refugees’ stay on a given territory are sometimes greatly diversified and hardly predictable in advance. It remains hard to prove whether the final balance is positive or negative, especially in the context of the discourse on sustainable development. In the short term, there seem to be usually more negative adverse effects (including, as I already mentioned threats connected with security and destabilization of local economy). However, at the time of camp existence, there are numerous advantages to be noticed mainly for the host communities which to a certain extent level negative consequences of the refugee camps. The most significant include better school education and higher standard of medical care. They are mainly connected with the influx of new specialists and the possibility of developing local economy thanks to a cheap workforce and entrepreneurship of some refugees, as well as access to previously unavailable products. It should be noted that results of the cheap workforce are volatile. On the one hand, work of refugees may support local people in generating higher income, but on the other hand, not all host countries may employ refugees as a cheap workforce. This in turn entails competition between the locals and refugees about the place in the local economy. In this case a lot depends on good or poor harvest. Except that, refugees as a cheap workforce may replace women at work, leaving them redundant. Additionally, women are at a disadvantage because all social help is channeled not to them, but to refugees. Benefits from infrastructure in refugee camps are not available in the very beginning but after camps cease to exist they become open to a local community. It manly depends on careful accomplishment of the project. Obviously, positive effects after the camp close-down are no longer ambiguous. They result from the infrastructure being taken over by the locals. Profit and loss account is heavily �64 Maciej Ząbek reliant on the international aid operations indispensable in this situation. Delays in providing humanitarian aid, along with insufficient quantity of funds, lead to the situation where refugees are treated as a heavy burden to the host communities which in turn entails hostile atmosphere. Nevertheless, it seems possible to avoid serious conflicts between refugees and host communities on the condition that international help and cooperation of all parties concerned are effective and act for one good cause. References Agier, M. (2002), Aux Bords du monde, les réfugiés, Paris. Chambers, R. (1986), Hidden Losers? The impact of rural refugees and refugee programs on poorer hosts, “International Migration Review”, 1986, 20, 2, pp. 245–63. Jacobsen, K. (2005), The Economic Life of Refugees, Boston. Jacobsen, K. (2002), Can Refugees Benefit the State? Refugee Resources and African Statebuilding, “The Journal of Modern African Studies”, Cambridge, Vol. 40, No. 4 (Dec., 2002), pp. 577–596. Landau, L.B. (2003), Beyond the Losers: Governmental Practice in Refugee – Affected Tanzania, Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 16, no 1, 2003 Ząbek, M. (2003), Obozowy „inny świat” spostrzeżenia z pobytu w obozach dla uchodźców w Kenii, „Afryka, Azja, Ameryka Łacińska” t. 80, Warszawa. �Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM (IKS) AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN SOUTH NGURU MOUNTAIN FOREST RESERVE, TANZANIA: Often neglected partner for sustainable management and use of biodiversity Abstract This study examines the significance of indigenous knowledge system (IKS) in sustainable management and use of biodiversity in South Nguru Sosthenes Ruheza – Dr., Lecturer, Researcher and Consultant at Development and Conservation Studies, University of Iringa (UoI). He holds Masters Degree in Rural Development at University College Dublin (UCD) and PhD in Development Studies of Sokoine University of Agriculture. His research interests concern conservation of natural resources particularly conservation of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge system. Z.A. Mattee – Department of Agricultural Education and Extension, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Morogoro, Tanzania. Emanuel E. Chingonikaya – Dr., Senior Lecturer, Development Studies Institute, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro. He holds a PhD in Development Studies. He has attended several professional courses such as interdisciplinary scientific research skills; concepts and theories of developments, poverty and policy analysis, participatory research methodology for researching with children, etc). Zuena Kilugwe – affiliated with the School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania. �66 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. mountain forest reserve. Semi-structured and key-informant interviews, field observations and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used for data collection. This study observed that indigenous people had a bundle of IKS that significantly contributed to the management of biodiversity. The study also observed that neither the IKS nor the biodiversity conservation methods can sustainably manage and use biodiversity: their combination would achieve more than either in their separation. The study recommends: official recognition of IKS; active participation of potential actors; motivation and capacity building of indigenous social structures from which the IKS evolved, is enhanced and sustained, the cornerstone for a wide use and application of the knowledge system and to its integration into biodiversity conservation methods. Keywords: Indigenous knowledge system, Biodiversity, Biodiversity conservation, Sustainable management and use, South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve, Tanzania. Introduction Biodiversity is at the heart of sustainable development and life insurance in itself (Mc Neil and Shei, 2002 cited by Sajise, 2005), whereas overexploitation of biodiversity results in reduced capacity to support present and future generations. The South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve is not excluded from the increasing worldwide problem of biodiversity decline, a problem that poses the greatest challenge to human survival and development (TFCG, 2007). The Mountains harbour one species which is critically endangered, eight endangered, ten vulnerable, two near-threatened and twenty vulnerable plant species based on IUCN threat classification (ibid). Despite IKS being widely known for its roles in the conservation of natural resources, indigenous people are often considered backward and antithetical to conservation objectives. In lighting of the similar view, McGregor (2004); Sobrevilla (2008) and Kajembe et al. (2010) argue that many global environmental problems such as the decline �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 67 of biodiversity have been attributed to the failure of most biodiversity conservation initiatives to efficiently use IKS. Quite recently, there have been several calls for the integration of IKS into biodiversity conservation methods, to take complementary advantage of their strengths and weaknesses, as their combination may achieve what neither would achieve alone (Stevenson, 2005; Nganje, 2009; Fitzgerald and Stronza 2009; Kajembe et al., 2010; Cobb, 2011 and Das Gupta, 2011). Moreover, their integration would create a mechanism of dialogue between indigenous people and scientists (Nyong, Adesina and Elasha, 2007), leading to less serious conflicts among actors. In this study, IKS refers to a body of knowledge that has been generated, tested, improved overtime through human interactions with their supporting ecosystem, enhanced and safeguarded by norms, values, taboos, rituals and sacredness that is interwoven into local politics, spiritual and socio-economic characteristics of the people concerned. Wilfred et al. (2007) refer biodiversity as a variety of life forms (animals, plants and micro-organisms), ecosystems and the ecological process in which these components are interacting, and the spiritual consciousness of the people concerned on such a relationship (Kimmerer, 2002). This implies that for indigenous people, biodiversity is synonymous to a scientific view of ecosystem with spiritual value attached to it. It is from the above argumentation, this study perceived biodiversity as abundance and number of different species of wild species of plants and animals and the non-living organisms in a given geographic area, living in spiritual and reciprocal relationships between the living and the non-living things, whereas humans are perceived as being part and parcel of the supporting ecosystem. According to Charnley, Fischer and Jones (2007) biodiversity conservation methods refer to conservation initiatives that are driven by theoretical models that are governed by testing of hypotheses and not necessarily utilitarian, often generalizable and �68 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. not always location-specific. In this study, biodiversity conservation methods refer to all forms of rules and regulations that are derived from scientifically derived approaches, and that perceive human beings as managers and part of the broader ecosystem. McGregor (2004) observed that the indigenous people in their own language (Ojibway language) had no single word to describe sustainable management and use of biodiversity. People simply believe that there should be a mutual taking and giving back to nature for the benefit of all components of the supporting ecosystem, and such duty is for the tiniest animals up to the powerful sun and spirits. This study refers to sustainable management and use of biodiversity as the management of humans’ interactions with wild species of plants and animals and non-living things in a supporting ecosystem, to ensure a reciprocal taking and giving back to nature so as to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations of all creations, and their spiritual values herein. It is against this background, using South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve as a case study, that this research explores IKS and management and use of biodiversity. Integration of this knowledge system into biodiversity conservation initiatives, may improve biodiversity conservation outcomes. Methodology Study Area The South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve (Figure 1) is situated roughly at the centre of the Eastern Arc Mountain chain of Tanzania, lying between S 05° 53´ S – S 06° 17´ and E 037° 27´– E 037° 45´ in Mvomero District, Morogoro Region. The Mountain covers an area of 184 square kilometers (DIIS, 2007), with an altitude ranging between 760 and 2400 meters above sea level (Menegon, Doggart and Owen, 2008). �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... Figure 1: A map showing location of the study villages 69 �70 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. Research design, sampling procedures, data collection and analysis In this study, an exploratory cross-sectional research design was used. According to De Vaus (2002), a cross-sectional research design involves the collection of information from representative population sample in one time duration at a single point. The choice of this research design is grounded on the fact that it is more flexible to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study (Kothari, 2004). A purposive sampling was used to select 4 villages out of 25 villages bordering South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve, each representing one ward within the landscape. Four villages were purposively selected, one village from the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western parts of the mountain landscape, representing different socio-economic characteristics of the study population. The study village included Pemba (north), Mndela (south), Maskati (west) and Kwelikwiji (east) of the South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve. Based on the criteria of being an indigenous person, as being a person who has lived in an area for not less 20; a sampling list was created using the 2005 voting list. A sample of 60 interviewees was randomly selected from each of the four village’s sampling list, making a total of 240 interviewees. Semi-structured and key-informant interviews, field observations and Focus Group Discussions were used for data collection. Four Focus Groups Discussions (FGD), (one in each of the four selected villages), that included walukolo, members of village environmental committees and the village chairperson, and/or the Village Executive Officer (VEO) were held to complement the information collected through interviews and field observations. Data collected in phase one was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the quantitative data whereas content analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data. �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 71 Results and Discussion Respondents’ views on the origin of biodiversity in the South Nguru montane forest The results (Table 1) showed that most respondents (90.0%) believe that biodiversity was created by God/gods, while only 10.0% of the respondents did not know the origin of biodiversity. Based on these findings, it is apparent that there is a spiritual belief amongst most of the respondents that biodiversity is God’s/god’s creation. Similarly, Anis (1994) cited by Mokuku and Mokuku (2004), added that most indigenous people believe that all living organisms share a creator and the creative process, and therefore they relate to one another, and such spiritual relationship has been determining human relations with other living things. However, in his study Mapara (2009) reported that the indigenous teaching among the Shona ethnic group of the present day Zimbabwe was normally through proverbs, starting with the words “Vakuru vedu vanoti”... or “Vakulu vedu vaiti” (“our elders used to say “...” or “our elders said “...”), whereas Vakuru implies either the dead or the elders who are knowledgeable/or were knowledgeable on IKS, indicating existence of a spiritual belief among indigenous people on existences of connectivity with their ancestors. Arguing on the significance of spiritual beliefs on conservation, Ylhäisi (2006) puts it that spiritual reasons have played a significant role in the management and use of biodiversity, as they determine human-biodiversity interactions of a particular ethnic group (Berkes 2008, Turbull 2007 and IIRR 1996b cited by Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha 2011, Cobb 2011) and less labour and more cost effective as compared to biodiversity conservation methods (Kideghesho, 2009). Moreover, management and use of biodiversity and the degree of adoption of new innovation, rests on the spiritual beliefs of a particular group of people about nature (IIRR, 1996a cited by �72 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha 2011). This suggests that appreciation and consideration of spiritual values attached to biodiversity by indigenous people might reduce conflicts among actors, promote and enhance the knowledge system and significantly contribute to sustainable management and use of biodiversity. Table 1: The respondents’ views on the origin of biodiversity in the South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve Response Item Frequency Percentage (n=240) Respondents’ views on the origin of biodiversity Created by God/gods I don’t know 216 24 90.0 10.0 Total 240 100 The presence of, status and custodians of sacred groves/places Results (Table 2) show that most (93.3%) of the respondents appreciate the presence of sacred groves/place(s) in their communities, while 6.3% of the respondents said there were no sacred groves/places in their community and only 0.4% of the respondents expressed their ignorance on the presence of sacred groves in their village. This implies that most of the respondents were appreciating the existence of sacred groves/places in their respective village. This study observed several sacred groves/places in all the villages, and the respondents who claimed that there were no sacred groves/places in their village might have been influenced by other factors: sacred groves/places were obvious, though they were increasingly less respected. According to Dash (2005) cited by Jaryan et al. (2010), sacred groves refer to patches of forests conserved through human’s spiritual beliefs and faith, whereas Ylhäisi (2006) refers to sacred forests/groves as being those forests/groves which are conserved by pre-colonial indigenous institutions and spiritual structures, and �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 73 believed to be inhabited by supernatural powers which influence the life of the people living in the area, and where ritual practices take place to strengthen the harmony between living people and supernatural powers, acting on behalf of the dead ancestors on the one hand and the unity among the people themselves, on the other hand. Their destruction has been prohibited to avoid destruction of the harmony of people livelihoods and the home of their ancestors (Ylhäisi, 2006). Arguing on the distribution of sacred groves, Jaryan et al. (2010) claimed that sacred are not restricted to any particular place or community and are well distributed across the globe and vary in sizes. Unfortunately, many are fast disappearing as a result of the influence of rapid socio-economic transformation, materialistic attitudes of the people that lead to the overutilization of resources. Table 2: Respondents’ views on the presence, status of and custodians of the sacred groves Presence of sacred groves/places in the village Frequency Percentage (n = 240) 224 93.3 15 6.2 1 0.4 240 100 Yes No I don’t know Total Custodian(s) of sacred grove/place (n= 224) 173 77.0 walukolo The village government 7 3.0 42 19.0 walukolo and village government None 2 1.0 Total 224 100 Status and density of the sacred groves as of the past 20 years (224) Are of the same size(s) 59 26.0 Have decreased 98 44.0 Almost extinct 66 29.6 I don’t know 1 0.4 Total 224 100 �74 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. (Table 2) shows that most (77.0%) of the respondents claimed that sacred grove(s) were under the management of walukolo (indigenous leaders, elders in most cases), while 19.0% of the respondents said that sacred groves/places were managed by both walukolo and the village’s government officials. Results further show that 3.0% claimed that sacred groves were managed by their village government and only 1.0% of the respondents said sacred groves/places are under the management of no one. According to PEMA (2006), conservation of sacred groves and/places has been historical practice of the Nguu ethnic group, mostly under the custodian of heads of the clan (mlukolo in Nguu language, meaning a head of people sharing common norms, values and practices). In lighting of the presence of the lukolo, Kajembe et al. (2010) and Shemdoe (2003) contend that all over Tanzania there are indigenous leaders responsible for the formulation and enforcement of taboos, norms and rules which, among others, determine humans-biodiversity interactions. For example, Steiner et al. (2004) cited by Hens (2006) argue that despite the fact that sacred groves have been biodiversity reservoirs, they were ignored by governments, conservation agencies and policies, so, their survival depends on the indigenous people (walukolo in such a case). According to PEMA (2006) sacred groves/places have been devoted to worship, rituals, tribal ceremonies and cemeteries. Grave forests in Ghana are protected to respect the dead as it is believed that the ancestral spirits live there, and entrance to those places is limited to certain members of the community such as the royal family members, village leaders and clan heads during burial purposes. Collection of products from grave places is an invitation of evil spirits and may instigate calamities such as famine, floods or death, resulting in conservation of biodiversity in such places (Ntiamou-Baidu 1995 cited by Mbwambo 2000). �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 75 1. A sacred grove in public land in Maskati village of the South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve: Photo Ruheza S. Mattee Reporting on the status of sacred grove(s)/place(s) for the past 20 years (Table 2), the majority of the respondents (44.0%) claim that the size of scared groves has decreased and almost 29.6% of the respondents said that sacred groves were almost extinct. Of all respondents, 26.0% said that size of sacred grove(s)/place(s) had remained the same, as of the past 20 years, and only 0.4% of the respondents said they did not know. It was further observed that some pieces of lands, which were previously restricted from farming, called ng’alimwa in Nguu language (meaning places that should not be farmed), have been converted to farmlands. Similarly, a study by Ylhäisi (2006) in the Usambara Montane Forests found that sacred groves were encroached on for agricultural purposes, �76 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. fetching of fuel wood and valuable timber trees species had led to a decrease in their taxonomic diversity, size and densities of most sacred groves and of biodiversity. The Nguu ethnic groups and sacred groves and/or places The results of different Nguu ethnic groups and their respective sacred groves/or places are presented in Table 3. This study revealed the existence of sacred groves/places with a total estimated area of 47.5 ha, managed mostly by 9 Nguu clans. The largest sacred grove is 4.8 ha, while the smallest grove is 0.05 ha, with a mean area of 1.8 ha. In Maskati village there are seven sacred groves with an estimated size of 10.45 ha, managed by three clans: Wanyagatwa (9.2 ha), Waganaza (1.2 ha) and Gombero (0.05ha). The Mndela village is dominated by a single clan, Wasongo, which manages a total of three sacred groves, totaling 4 ha. Results also show that in Pemba village there are a total of sixteen sacred groves managed by six clans: Wasongo (8.2 ha), Wanyasa (11.2 ha) and Kilangulu (6.4 ha). Others include Wakwigina (4.4 ha), Waluhanga (2.8 ha) and Waruwi (1.2 ha). Table 3 shows that Kwelikwiji village is also dominated by a single clan, having a single sacred place referred to as Luamba ritual site with an estimated size of 0.05 ha that is under the custodian of Wanyagatwa. The study further disclosed that some of the clans are dominating more than one village, and therefore, the indigenous territories are not conforming to government village demarcations. The study further reveals that the Maasai, like the Nguu ethnic group, have sacred groves/or places, probably because of their forest-livestock relationships in this particular area. Furthermore, traditionally the Maasai do not hunt or consume wild meat and are less involved with forest clearing for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the Maasai perform annual rituals, aiming for health �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 77 and wishes, though currently they are no longer practiced, as most of them prefer to sell their cattle rather than to offer sacrifices for rituals. This finding is supported by a study by Shemdoe (2003) in Lake Manyara National Park which reveals that Maasai spiritual leaders, referred to as laiguinan, who were acquainted with their clan culture, are respected in terms of their decisions, rules and regulations on the management and use of biodiversity, among others. A study by Ylhäisi (2006) finds great variation in size and density of sacred groves among different lukolos within and between villages, as a result of differences in the degree of social solidarity exercised by a particular clan and on the presence/absence of the responsible head of a clan (mlukolo in Nguu tribe) to manage the use of the clan’s sacred grove(s)/place(s). Similarly, studies by Kweka (2004), Msuya and Kideghesho (2009) also observed that dominance of a certain ethnic group in a particular area determines their strengths in the emphasis of their indigenous knowledge for the management and use of biodiversity, and sacred grove(s) being part of it. It is worth noting that the Nguu and Zigua ethnic groups are closely related in their culture, norms, values and language. A study by Ylhäisi (2006) revealed that the Zigua, the first clan to settle in an area, established a clan (a lukolo in both Zigua and Nguu languages), and a mlukolo is responsible for the conservation of the sacred groves, ritual practices and enforcement of the IKS, among other duties (Ylhäisi, 2006). The lukolo is mainly based on having a common ritual place, and not necessarily being a blood relation (Oppen, 1992 cited by Ylhäisi, 2006). It is from the study findings and literature that this study argues that sustainability of sacred groves and/places that have been widely reported to conserve biodiversity mostly rests on the walukolo, in a context of increased external and internal pressure for their encroachment. �78 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. Table 3: The Nguu ethnic groups’ sacred groves/places in the study area Name of the village Name of the sacred grove/place Estimated size (Ha) Custodian clan Maskati Mpeele (Kwentingu) 4.0 Wanyagatwa Magole 2.0 Wanyagatwa Manyasa 1.6 Wanyagatwa Disalaza 0.8 Wanyagatwa Mazinde 0.8 Wanyagatwa Pangai 1.2 Sub total 9.2 Gombero Total 0.05 Waganaza Wafati 10.45 Mndela Kochamazi 0.8 Wasongo Kwedimongo 1.2 Wasongo 2.0 Wasongo Mlima Mteke Total 4.0 Pemba Finta Wasongo Nyanyiunga 1.8 Wasongo Mkunvuru 2.4 Wasongo Sub total 8.2 Kwevirango 4.4 Wanyasa Heviziwa 4.8 Wanyasa Mgoroka 2.0 Wanyasa Sub total Sub total 4.0 11.2 Khwarike 1.2 Waruwi Msente 0.4 Waluhanga Kwevilulu 0.8 Waluhanga Kikangazi 1.6 Waluhanga 2.8 �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... Mheza 2.8 Kilangulu Rwinyi 1.2 Kilangulu Kimwege 2.4 Kilangulu Sub total 79 6.4 Vikinga 1.6 Gereza 1.6 Wakwigina Mapalamba 1.2 Wakwigina Sub total Wakwigina 4.4 Total 33.0 Kwelikwiji Luamba Grand Total 0.05 Wanyagatwa 47.5 Presence of sacred wild plant species and reasons for their sacredness Most of Nguu people are aware of the existence of sacred wild tree species in their village. Table 4 demonstrates that most of the respondents (81.0%) agreed on the presence of sacred wild tree species, while only 19.0% of the respondents expressed their ignorance of the presence of sacred tree species in their village. The study further disclosed that Mvumo (Ficus inges, F. scassellatii) were mentioned by most of the respondents (53.0%) as a sacred tree species, while 27.0% of the respondents mentioned Mkuyu (Ficus altissima) and only 8.0% of the respondents claimed that Mdala (Euclea divinorum) was sacred. Of all the respondents, only 7.0% and 5.0% of the respondents mentioned any big tree/very old trees and Mnyasa (Newtonia buchananii) as sacred trees, respectively. Results (Table 4) have further shown that majority (47.0%) of the respondents claim that tree species that are sacred are believed to inhabit ancestral spirits and/or used for traditional ceremonies, while 27.0% of respondents say those trees improve soil fertility and conserve moisture, and 18.0% of respondents say that sacred �80 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. trees are believed to cause curse, sickness and death to a person or a close relative, if destroyed. Results further show that 5.0% of the respondents believe that all edible wild fruit trees are sacred and only 3.0% of the respondents claim that medicinal trees are sacred. Scattered wild tree species on public lands are also considered sacred, varying in size from very big and probably very old trees to small ones. It was revealed that in case it is deemed necessary to cut down such very big/very old trees, some rituals have to be performed as a way of appeasing ancestral spirits. For example, according to the Maasai, trunks of cut sacred trees have to be covered by fresh leaves as a way of appeasing ancestral spirits for cutting such a tree. Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha (2011) also found that very big/very old wild trees were perceived among the Shona/Ndebele ethnic group as inhabiting ancestral spirits and capable of rainmaking. They are normally used for shade and traditional ceremonies, and therefore have been considered sacred and were protected from any malpractices that threaten their survival. Ancestral spirits are believed to use such tree species to reach people. It is from the above findings and literature review that this study argues that beliefs in sacred trees have significantly contributed to management of biodiversity. Sacred attachment to flora species is varied within different ethnic groups, probably because of their socio-economic characteristics and perceived contribution of such species to their livelihood and spiritual beliefs. Table 4: Respondents’ views on the presence of sacred wild plants and their reason(s) for their sacredness. Sacred wild animals and reason(s) for their sacredness Presence of sacred wild species Frequency Percentage (n = 240) Yes 195 81.0 No 45 19.0 240 100 Total �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 81 Name of sacred tree species (n = 195) 124 53.0 Mnyasa (Newtonia buchananii) 11 5.0 Mdala (Euclea divinorum) 19 8.0 Mkuyu (Ficus altissima) 63 27.0 Any big tree 16 7.0 218 47.0 Mvumo (Ficus inges, F. Scassellatii) Reasons for sacred wild plants (n = 195) Harbors evil spirits and used for traditional practices Medicinal plants Improve soil fertility and conserve water 14 3.0 126 27.0 Provide wild fruits 21 5.0 Can lead to curse, sickness and death 82 18.0 The sanctity of wild animals is another aspect of the linkage between IKS and biodiversity conservation. Table 5 shows that most of the respondents (75.0%) agreed on the presence of sacred wild animals in their community, while 23.0% of the respondents said there were no sacred wild animals and 2.0% of the respondents said they did not know. Mbega (Colubus angelensis) is mentioned by most of the respondents (74.2%) as being sacred and 13.4% of the respondents mention Gwalangwa (millipede) being sacred (Table 4). Of the respondents, 7.4% claim that Kunguru (Corvus albus, C. albicollis) is a sacred animal while only 5.0% of the respondents mentioned Dondoro (Cephalophus harveyi) as a sacred wild animal. Despite Dondoro (C. harveyi) being mentioned as a sacred animal, the study and literature show that duikers are some of the most hunted wild animals for bush meat and can rarely be seen nowadays. Arguably, it is possible that the animals are mentioned as sacred either because they are illegally hunted inside the forests, a practice that has been restricted by the forest officers, or as a way of trying to hide activities as facts on the ground. �82 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. Most of the respondents (86.0%) express that wild animal species are neither destructive, harmless, nor consumable and those which contribute to people’s livelihood strategies are normally considered sacred, and killing such animals has been perceived as a taboo, as such action goes against the God’s reasons for creation and management and use of biodiversity. About 11.0% of the respondents say that they do not know why some wild animal species are perceived as sacred, though they believed killing such animals can lead to curse and/or death of an offender or a close relative, and only 3.0% of the respondents said that harmless animals such as Galangwa (millipede) were sacred. Table 5: Respondents’ views on the presence of sacred wild animal Presence of sacred animal(s) Frequency (n = 240) Percentage Yes 179 75.0 No 56 23.0 5 2.0 240 100 150 74.3 I don’t know Total Name of sacred species (n = 179) Mbega (Colubus angelensis) Gwalangwa (millepede) 27 13.4 Dondoro (Cephalophus harveyi) 10 5.0 Kunguru (Corvus albus, C. albicollis) 15 7.4 187 86.0 Reason(s) for sacredness (n = 179) Non-destructive and not consumable Harmless Killing can lead to curse and death 7 3.0 23 11.0 Mokuku and Mokuku (2004) contend that some animal species are perceived as being sacred as they have powers to cause certain awesome consequences for humans and communicate �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 83 with humans, once seen or encountered, suggesting the existence of complex interactions between physical and spiritual beings of indigenous people into other species. For example, an owl’s call is believed to warn about or cause death in the family (Mokuku and Mokuku, 2004; Kweka, 2004). Mokuku and Mokuku (2004) also found that the pied-crows (C. albus) are believed to bring good luck, such as one may get money, and therefore favour their conservation. In summing up the discussion on sacred animals and management, and use of biodiversity, Mokuku and Mokuku (2004) put it that association of some organisms with fearsome consequences if destroyed and providence seen or encountered shrouds them with spiritual powers, sacredness and awe, creating a basis for their respect and therefore their conservation. Mapara (2009) also reported that in pre-colonial Shona society, taboos were used to discourage people from transgressing norms on totemic species, and there were several fines for the transgressor of those norms, resulting in conservation of the species of concern. What needs to be done to revive the IKS for management and use of biodiversity Results (Table 6) show that half of the respondents (51.0%) say that the youth must be formally taught on the significance of the IKS for management and use of biodiversity to ensure sustainability of the knowledge system, while 27.0% of the respondents proposed official recognition of and capacity building for the custodians of the knowledge system. Of the respondents, 7.0% said that integration of IKS into village bylaws will enhance and sustain a wide use application of the knowledge system, while 15.0% of the respondents express their ignorance of what should be done to revive the knowledge system. Arguing on the lack of the official recognition of IKS, Kideghesho (2009) states that there is a minimal official recognition of this �84 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. knowledge system in conservation policies despite the government being a signatory of the CBD of 1992 which emphasized, among others, on the wide use an application and integration of the IKS. In lighting of the similar view, Mattee (2007) argues that policies in Tanzania are formulated through a centralized system of public interest resulting in failure of such policies: the process of policies formulation has ignored power relationships and roles among potential stakeholders making them being almost irrelevant and leading to conflicts among actors interested in management and use of biodiversity. Table 6: Strategies to revive the indigenous knowledge system A strategy Frequency Percentage (n = 240) There should be more teaching on the significance of IKS 199 51.0 Official recognition and capacity building of IKS 105 27.0 Integration of IKS into village bylaws 30 7.0 I don’t know 58 15.0 Respondents’ views on the significance of the IKS/ biodiversity conservation methods on management and use of biodiversity The respondents’ views on the significance of the IKS and biodiversity conservation methods in their separation on management and use of biodiversity are shown in Table 7. Result show that most of the respondents (97.0%) express their view that the IKS alone cannot effectively conserve biodiversity, with only 3.0% of the respondents claiming that the knowledge system alone can effectively and sustainably conserve biodiversity. Results also show that of the respondents who claim that the IKS cannot sustainably manage and use biodiversity, almost 80.3% �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 85 said that lack of legitimacy and power of IKS to deal with offenders of the system has limited its effectiveness on management and use of biodiversity, while 9.1% of the respondents said that labeling the IKS as out-dated has limited its effectiveness, and almost 6.6% of the respondents said that as not all areas are under the custodians of the IKS, its effectiveness on management and use of biodiversity is thus limited. Results further reveal that almost 2.6% of the respondents say that the knowledge system can effectively and sustainably manage and use biodiversity since the system is still respected by most people, while 1.4% of the respondents claim that the knowledge system alone cannot sustainably manage and use biodiversity, unless otherwise, poverty is dealt with. Poverty has compelled people to abuse their knowledge system just to make a living. Arguing on the lack of legitimacy amongst the custodians of the IKS, Ylhäisi (2006) states that regardless of the significance of the walukolo on management and use of biodiversity through enforcing the IKS, their roles have increasingly been eclipsed by national legislation, government institutions and village administration, with most of the duties of the forestry officers being limited inside boundaries of the forest reserves, with the exception of some exported plant species such as Mninga and Mvule. Through key-informant interview, it was disclosed that limited budget and staff were the reasons why the forestry officers have limited effectiveness inside the forest reserves. In furtherance of the discussion on the exclusion of the indigenous people in the realm of biodiversity conservation, Ylhäisi (2006) further added that, despite the Tanzanian government being a signatory of the CBD of 1992 and the Forest Act of 2002 emphasizing active participation of the indigenous people, most forest officers still consider indigenous people as harmful to biodiversity, rather than potential partners in management and use of biodiversity. In light �86 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. of this, several studies have pointed out that both colonial and post-colonial government policies and regulations marginalized the IKS, triggering a struggle for legitimacy between the knowledge systems (Mutta, et al., 2009, Kideghesho, 2009 and Ossai, 2010). Results (Table 7) have shown that most of the respondents (97.5%) claimed that biodiversity conservation methods alone cannot effectively and sustainably conserve biodiversity, while only 2.5% of the respondents expressed that biodiversity conservation methods alone can effectively and sustainably conserve biodiversity. Results also indicate that half of the respondents (50.2%) claim that limited resources hampered the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation methods, while 24.3% of respondents mention lack of spiritual connectedness amongst forestry officers and other practitioners of sustainable management, which reduces their seriousness on management and use of the same. Of the respondents, 18.4% said that biodiversity conservation methods alone could not effectively conserve biodiversity in the absence of a complementary partner, the IKS, while only 7.1% of the respondents said that biodiversity conservation methods could not effectively conserve biodiversity as they are less known to most people. Table 7: Respondent’s views on the effectiveness of the IKS/ biodiversity conservation methods on management and use of biodiversity Effectiveness of the indigenous knowledge system alone on conserve biodiversity Frequency Percentage (n = 240) Yes 7 3.0 No 233 97.0 Total 240 100 Reasons for the effectiveness status of IKS (n = 240) 220 IKS has no legitimacy and legal power to deal with offenders Indigenous knowledge system is perceived as outdated 25 Not all areas are under indigenous knowledge system 18 80.3 9.1 6.6 �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 87 People still respect IKS 7 2.6 Income poverty has to be dealt 4 1.4 Effectiveness of biodiversity methods alone on conservation of biodiversity Yes 6 2.5 No 234 97.5 Total 240 100 65 24.3 134 50.2 Reason for the effectiveness status of biodiversity conservation methods (n = 240) The government officials lack spiritual connectedness to biodiversity The government has limited resources for meaningful conservation Biodiversity conservation methods are less known Indigenous knowledge system is an ignored complementing partner 19 7.1 49 18.4 Through a key-informant interview, it was reported that conservation initiatives of the forestry reserve were limited by funding and field forestry officers. For example, in the last financial year (2011–2012), the allocated funds were only 60.0% of the requested budget, with a shortage of seven field forestry officers needed for conservation of the South Nguru Montane Forest Reserve as per the Mkingu Nature Reserve Forest strategic plan. According to FBD (2005); Kideghesho (2009) limited budgets and inadequate workforces which have limited the capacity of most governments in enforcement of the biodiversity conservation methods. Similarly, Sabuni (1998) cited by Mbwambo (2000) and Burgess et al. (2007) also noted that insufficient funds limited effective management and use of biodiversity in the Eastern Arc Mountains Forests. PEMA (2006) also found that poor enforcement of poorly understood government rules and regulations for the management and use of biodiversity has limited their effectiveness. Arguably, limited resources have hampered the capacity of the government �88 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. on the management and use of biodiversity. Moreover, through interviews, it was found that negligence of the spiritual aspects attached to biodiversity amongst the government officials has also limited the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation methods. Similarly, citing Gibson et al. (1999), Kweka (2004) also put it that a meaningful participation of primary beneficiaries could do much better for the management and use of biodiversity. It would address the problem of limited government staff for the enforcement of the rules and regulations, by increasing indigenous people’s sense of ownership of the biodiversity to be conserved, enhance peoples’ attitude towards conservation and the forestry staff and increase mutual trust between forestry staff, and the indigenous people. For example, a study by Ylhäisi (2006) observed that in Simbomu and Vuchama Ngofi villages of Mwanga district, village by-laws were supporting protected indigenous forests, whilst the caretakers of the indigenous forests (walukolo, in the case of this study) are officially recognized and continue to protect their forests using their IKS. In cases where a caretaker of a certain sacred grove converted into either Christianity or Islam, the management of the sacred groves would become the responsibility of the respective village government (Ylhäisi, 2006). Moreover, village governments have been responsible for all cases of destruction of the protected indigenous forests instead of the care takers of these forests, who in most cases are elders, unable to meet the costs and all other bureaucracy associated with dealing with the offenders (ibid). Citing the Simbomu and Vuchama Ngofi examples of the integration of IKS and biodiversity conservation methods, Idd (2002) cited by Ylhäisi (2006) argues that such an integration of the knowledge systems was a very important strategy and a good example to the whole of Tanzania, as it resulted in recovery and improvement of the sacred groves in Simbomu village. This suggests that integration of IKS and biodiversity conservation methods would achieve �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 89 more on sustainable management and use of biodiversity than either in their separation. In summing up the discussion of the effectiveness of the IKS and biodiversity conservation methods in their separation on sustainable management and use of biodiversity, Ylhäisi (2006) puts it that bylaws, laws and the IKS in their separation have less influence in preventing people from using forest land as most people prefer and follow the unwritten policies that enable them to survive, despite being aware of the fact that by doing so they are destroying their most important partner in their survival (Mvungi, 1998 cited by Ylhäisi, 2006). In furtherance of this view, citing Guyer and Richard (1996), Korhonen (2009) argued that the western idea of separating humans and nature is a strange idea in some cultures, yet perceiving indigenous people as having lived in harmony with biodiversity is also not true. This suggests that both the IKS and biodiversity conservation methods are perceived as not being effective in sustainable management and use, and thus it has been widely argued for their integration. Sadly, the IKS has been excluded from the management and use of biodiversity as it has been perceived as being primitive, barbaric and backward, just a few to name. Conclusions Biodiversity is a cornerstone for sustainable development, and the IKS has a great role to play in attainment of the same. It is from the findings and the literature the following conclusions are drawn by the study. First, in the South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve, local people possess a wealth of IKS that determined humans-biodiversity. The knowledge system was interwoven into people’s indigenous social structure and politics, whereas the social structure links humans, the land in which ancestors were �90 Ruheza S. Mattee, Z.A., Chingonikaya, E.E. and Kilugwe, Z. buried and the ancestral spirits, with the latter being believed to affect the lives of the people. The knowledge system included but not limited to sacred groves and places, globally known for their biodiversity richness and sacred species of both, flora and fauna. The study also revealed that most of the indigenous people believed that all the living and the non-living things were the God/or gods’ creation and deserved upmost respect, so they had to be used in a reciprocal relationship among themselves, whereas restrictions in forms of taboo, sacredness, totemic, just to list a few attached to favour their conservation. Sadly, despite the significance of the IKS on management and use of biodiversity being extensively documented, most of biodiversity conservations initiatives relied on the western view of conservation with written rules and regulations excluding the IKS. Conclusively, the integration of the IKS on its own ways of knowing and doing, and biodiversity conservation methods and for sustainable management and use of biodiversity is a cornerstone for the achievement of the same, as the knowledge systems are complementing each other on their weaknesses and strengths. Recommendations – To the government and non-governmental organizations, official recognition, motivation, capacity building and promotion of indigenous social structures from which IKS relevant for management and use of biodiversity gets evolved, enhanced and sustained is a corner for cherishment, sustainability and integration of IKS into biodiversity conservation methods for management and use of biodiversity. The IKS should be used based on its own ways of knowing, teaching and learning. – Last but not least, an in-depth study on biodiversity richness and taxonomic diversity of the sacred groves and places in the �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 91 South Nguru Mountain Forest Reserve and elsewhere, by the government and biodiversity conservation practitioners, is of paramount importance as sacred groves and places are globally acknowledged for being the habitat of endangered and nearly extinct species of both flora and fauna. Acknowledgement First and foremost, a credit should go to the local communities for their devoted time, kindness and cooperation during our research, and to the village government leaders, we are thankful for their cooperation, organization and support during our stay in the study villages. We are also thankful to Morogoro Catchment Officers for their support and information during field work. 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(2002), Weaving traditional ecological knowledge into biological education: A call for action; “Bioscience” 52 (5) 432–438. �REFUGEE CAMPS IN AFRICA: SUSTAINABLE EXISTENCE... 93 Korhonen, K. (2009), The Rocky Road of Social Sustainability: The Impact of Integrated Biodiversity Conservation and Development on the Local Realities in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar, A Thesis for Award of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at University of Helsinki, Finland, p. 84. Kothari, C.R. (2003), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.), “New Age International Publishers”, Delhi, India, p. 401. Kweka, D. (2004), The Role of local knowledge and institutions in conservation of forestry resources in the Eastern Usambara, A research report submitted to United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Man and Biodiversity Young Scientist Programme, p. 55. Mapara, J. (2009), Indigenous knowledge systems in Zimbabwe: Juxtaposing postcolonial theory, “Journal of Pan African Studies” 3 (1): 139–154. Mattee, A.Z. (2007), Study on option for pastoralists to secure their livelihoods: Current policy making processes in Tanzania, Report submitted to CORDS, p. 20. Mbwambo, J.S. (2000), Role of indigenous knowledge and organizations in sustainable Conservation of biodiversity. A case study of Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, A Dissertation for Award of M.Sc. Degree at Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, p. 118. McGregor, D. (2004), Traditional ecological and sustainable development: Towards Co-existence. In: The way of development: Indigenous people, civil society and the environment (Edited by Blaster, M., Feit, H.A., Harris-Jones, P., McRae, G and Menzies, C.R.) Zed books New York, pp. 72–91. Menegon, M., Doggart, N. and Owen, N. 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(2007), Role of institutions in biodiversity in Northern Uluguru Mountains, Morogoro, Tanzania: The villagers’ perspective, “Discovery Innovation” 19 (1 and 2): 15–23. Vaus, D. de (2002). Surveys in Social Research. 5th ed. Allen and Unwin, Australia, p. 379. Ylhäisi, J. (2006), Traditional Protected Forests and Sacred Forests of Zigua and Gweno Ethnic Groups in Tanzania. Institute of Geography, University of Helsinki A 139. 29 pp. ��Jerzy Gilarowski Environmental change and adjustments in agriculture in Tanzania Abstract The most common definition of climate change is an alteration in the variables of the climate system over long periods of time. The main factors of the natural climate change are: variations in solar radiation, orbital variations of the Earth, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents and oceans, volcanism and continental drift. However, in the last 150 years, the most significant agents of climate variation were human activities. Of most concern in human influences is the increase in carbon dioxide levels due to emissions from fossil fuel burning. The fastest changes in climatic variables, especially in temperature patterns, occur in temperate and polar zones. Many scientists agree that the pace of global warming is much slower in the intertropical belt, but despite these common views, my research, which I did in 2010 and 2013, with the help of my geography students, shows, that climate and environmental changes are much faster than the scientists write. Within the last 30 years the biggest changes took place in temperature and precipitation patterns and in soil fertility. As the changes are likely to continue in the future, Tanzania will have to adapt to them its agriculture – change the structure of production, methods of cultivation, and first of all create, together with neighboring countries, deeply thought-out system of water management. Jerzy Gilarowski – PhD in Geography, Professor at the Faculty of Science and Education, Department of Education, University of Iringa. His main research interests are: Man and Environment relationship in Sub Saharan Africa. �98 Jerzy Gilarowski Key words: Environmental change, Tanzania, Adjustments in agriculture, Water management. * * * Natural climate change is an ongoing process, but in the last 150 years the average temperature of the Earth’s lower part of the atmosphere was growing as a result of the greenhouse effect (caused mostly by an addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels). The observed climate anomalies occur, however, especially in temperate and polar climate. Many scientists agree that global warming refers, to a lesser extent, to equatorial regions (for example Tanzania). According to them, due to global warming, the air temperature rises quickly in the area of polar and temperate climates (for example: in Europe, USA, Canada, and Russia). Is it really so? Does Tanzania experience lesser climate change? My research shows that it does not – climate and environmental changes in Tanzania (according to Tanzanian residents) are much faster than the scientists write. The study of the environmental change in Tanzania (made through questionnaires) involved 140 students of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences from the University of Dodoma. All students were attending my lecture on Climatology. The study took place in 2010, and 2013 in the middle of second semester, during the Easter break. Before the break, just before students’ leaving to their homes for holidays, I discussed with them in details the content of the questionnaire. Students were asked to interview their parents and grandparents in terms of the questions contained in the questionnaire. Each questionnaire contained 6 questions that focused on possible changes in the environment that have occurred (or not) in the last 30 years in their places of residences and – more generally – in their administrative regions. Responding to a question (on a basis of received answers from relatives �Environmental change and adjustments... 99 and on a basis of their own observations) students had a choice of selecting one of three options: Yes – changes have taken place, No – changes have not taken place or I don’t know – if there was no information available (or lack of self-knowledge). Students were informed that it is better (for my research) to select the last option, if the person questioned by them was not sure if the changes took or did not take place in fact. I wanted, in this way, to get the material for the specific/real changes that have occurred in a particular place, rather than general knowledge of students about the ongoing climate change and its consequences. Students were told, that if they choose/select a positive answer (Yes – changes have taken place) they will have to describe shortly these changes – giving concrete examples. Six questions, included in questionnaire, were as follows: 1. Do you think (or your parents/grandparents have told you) that forest surfaces have decreased or some forests have disappeared? 2. Have you observed or your parents/grandparents have told you about any changes in the water levels in lakes? 3. Have you observed or your parents have told you about any changes in water flows in local rivers/streams? 4. Have you observed or your parents have told you about any climate changes (for example: precipitations, temperatures, and the span of wet/dry season?) 5. Do the peasants think that the fertility of soils has decreased in your region? 6. Have you observed (or your parents have told you) that some animals in your region have disappeared/or became extinct? Students came from all administrative regions of Tanzania, but most of the questionnaires were fulfilled in the regions of: Iringa, Kagera, Kilimanjaro (respectively 21, 16, and 14 questionnaires), the least in the regions of: Lindi, Mtwara, and Tabora (only one questionnaire fulfilled). �100 Jerzy Gilarowski Questionnaires filled out by students provided 840 responses (140 students/questionnaires x 6 questions). Considering all regions of the country and all of the above six categories of environmental change, 575 responses were positive (Yes, the changes have taken place), which is 68.5% of all responses, 101 negative (12%), while 164 responses (19.5%) were neutral (the responders did not have any knowledge on a given subject). Taking into consideration the whole country (all regions) – the first question (regarding changes in forest area) was positively answered by 70% of respondents, the second (the changes in the level of water in lakes) was positively answered by 62.9% of respondents, the third (changes in the flow of water in rivers) – 72.9%, the fourth (changes in climate elements) – 85.7%, the fifth (changes in soil fertility) – 77.1%, the sixth (the wildlife population) – by 42.1% of respondents. The table below shows all responses. To the first question, regarding changes in forest areas, respondents who ticked positive response, wrote mostly as a commentary, that the forests round their villages disappear because people cut down trees for firewood, charcoal production (which covers up to 90% of energy needs among Tanzanians) and in order to obtain more arable land, and pasture for their herds (which is evidenced by FAO reports1). Over 80% of respondents answered this question positively (Yes – changes have taken place) in regions such as: Dodoma, Kagera, Kigoma, Lindi, Manyara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Shinyanga, Singida and Tabora2. While the lowest percentage of positive responses to this question were in: Tanga, Dar es Salaam/Pwani and Arusha (relatively: 25, 37.5 i 44.5%). The low response rate in these regions is easy to explain. The questionnaire shows that students who came from the region of http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/57478/en/tza/ [23.04.2013]. Although it should be noted, that in Lindi, Mtwara and Tabora only one questionnaire has been filled. 1 2 �Y 4 3 3 13 13 6 9 1 3 4 11 6 1 6 1 2 4 4 1 1 2 98 N 2 4 0 4 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 22 1 ? 3 1 0 4 1 1 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 20 Y 4 1 1 12 14 5 9 0 3 6 7 3 1 11 2 0 4 1 1 3 0 88 N 3 7 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 1 23 2 ? 2 0 2 8 2 2 4 0 0 0 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 29 Y N ? Y 6 1 2 7 4 2 2 4 2 1 0 3 17 1 3 17 14 0 2 12 6 0 1 7 12 0 2 13 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 5 1 0 6 10 0 2 11 6 0 0 6 1 0 0 1 3 4 5 10 1 1 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 4 3 0 2 5 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 1 0 2 3 102 15 23 120 3 N ? 0 2 3 1 0 0 2 2 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 9 11 4 Y N ? 6 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 0 16 2 3 15 0 1 4 1 2 13 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 5 1 0 11 0 1 4 1 1 1 0 0 6 2 4 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 4 1 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 1 1 108 15 17 5 Number of responses to individual questions Y 3 4 1 7 7 4 3 0 3 3 8 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 1 2 1 59 N 1 2 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 2 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 17 6 Source: Students’ field studies, 2010 (9) – the number of completed questionnaires in the region Y – Yes, changes have taken place; N – No, changes haven’t taken place; ? – I don’t know Tot – the number of questions asked in the region (number of completed questionnaires x 6 questions) Arusha (9) Dar es Salaam + Pwani (8) Dodoma (3) Iringa (21) Kagera (16) Kigoma (7) Kilimanjaro (14) Lindi (1) Manyara (3) Mara (6) Mbeya (12) Morogoro (6) Mtwara (1) Mwanza (12) Rukwa (2) Shinyanga (2) Singida (4) Ruvuma (5) Tabora (1) Tanga 4 Zanzibar + Pemba (3) Tanzania (140) Region ? 5 2 2 12 9 3 10 0 0 1 2 1 0 10 1 0 2 1 0 1 2 64 The total number of responses for the region and for the whole country Tot Y N ? 54 30 8 16 48 20 21 7 18 12 2 4 126 82 12 32 96 75 3 18 42 32 1 9 84 59 5 20 6 3 2 1 18 17 0 1 36 29 5 2 72 58 4 10 36 26 7 3 6 6 0 0 72 37 11 24 12 9 2 1 0 12 10 2 24 20 2 2 30 21 4 5 6 6 0 0 24 15 8 1 18 8 2 8 840 575 101 164 Tab. 1. Comparison of responses to asked questions by administrative regions of Tanzania Environmental change and adjustments... 101 �102 Jerzy Gilarowski Dar es Salaam lived within the city or in the suburban districts where the forests disappeared over thirty years ago (that now there is nothing to deforest). In turn, in the region of Tanga forests occur on the high slopes of the Usambara Mountains, where agriculture is sporadic (and therefore there is no deforestation), while in Arusha, which is one of the driest regions of the country, the predominant formation of the plant is dry savanna. Forests are there only high in the mountains – on the slopes of Mount Meru and the Ngorongoro crater, or in the vicinity of Lake Manyara (all of these areas are protected as national parks). It should be emphasized that deforestation (at least theoretically) takes place mainly in areas not covered by the statutory protection, which in Tanzania covers approximately 62% of the total area of​​ the country. In the most of aforementioned regions – Dodoma, Lindi, Manyara, Morogoro, Mtwara, Shinyanga, Singida and Tabora (according to surveys – some of the most vulnerable to deforestation), forest areas are largely outside protected areas. In these eight regions, 100% of respondents noted a decrease in forest areas. It should be emphasized that the perception of intensive deforestation in Tanzania, obtained through the surveys, has its reflection in the official FAO statistics (see table below). According to Global Forest Resources Assessment, the deforestation rate in Tanzania in the period 1990–2000 and 2000–2005 was 1% and 1.1%, respectively (FAO, 2006, Global Forest Resources Assessment). Tab. 2. Changes in forest area in Tanzania in the period 1990–2005 (in thousand hectares) Category of wooded area according to FAO classification 1990 2000 2005 Forest 41 441 37 318 35 257 Other wooded land (woodland) 22 374 10 629 4 756 Forest + woodland 63 815 47 947 40 013 Source: http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/32185/en/tza/ (23.04.2013) �Environmental change and adjustments... 103 To the second question, regarding the changes of the levels of water in lakes, the most positive responses (over 80%) were in the following regions: Kagera, Manyara, Mara, Mwanza, Rukwa, Singida and Tabora. No positive response was noted in the regions: Lindi, Shinyanga, and Zanzibar, which resulted from the simple fact that in these regions, or better say in the districts inhabited by responders, there are no lakes (which was emphasized by respondents in the comment). Those who positively responded to this question (Yes, changes have taken place) mainly emphasized the fact that as a result of intensive irrigations (catching the water from rivers) less water flows in rivers and streams and as a result less water enters into the lakes. Some also pointed out that it may be due to the decrease of precipitations (rainfall) in the last 30 years (according to the information received from their parents and grandparents). Most respondents gave examples of decreased level of water not only in small bodies of water (such as Lake Babati in Arusha region, Lake Ikimba in Kagera region, Lake Jipo in Kilimanjaro region, the artificial water dam Mtera in Iringa region), but also in a large-area lakes such as: Victoria, Tanganyika, Malawi, Rukwa, Manyara. In Kagera region, 10 respondents (out of 16) noticed a marked reduction of water in Victoria Lake, while in Mara region – 2 respondents (out of 6) noticed the same phenomenon. Respondents, in accordance, wrote that the former lake level is clearly marked on the shore, especially in the quays of the port cities – in Bukoba and Mwanza. A similar situation occurred in the Lake Tanganyika. Former water level is marked on the quays in ports in Kigoma and Ujiji. Several respondents wrote that on the Lake Tanganyika, near the town of Kibirizi, at present one can see some rocks above the surface of the water, where 20–30 years ago you could not see them, and on the Lake Victoria, in the Sengerema district, some offshore islands joined the mainland. �104 Jerzy Gilarowski To the question concerning changes of water flow in rivers, more than 80% of positive answers were in the following regions (12): Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro, Lindi, Manyara, Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Shinyanga and Tabora. On the other hand, only in the regions of Mwanza and Zanzibar response rate was less than 50 (25 and 33%, respectively). It is worth noting that the latter two regions plus the region of Dar es Salaam (together with Pwani)3 and Lindi were rated by the respondents as the least changed of all4. Like as in the case of lakes, respondents gave examples of decreasing water flow in small and big rivers. The main reasons for the decrease in water flow in rivers are irrigations and deforestation. A spectacular example of the decreasing amount of water is The Great Ruaha River. I have had the opportunity to personally observe this phenomenon for several years. Not only does this river carry less water, but it also dries up the swamps in its basin. One of the consequences of the decrease in the flow of water (and drying of smaller streams) is the lowering of the groundwater level. This phenomenon is especially present in the dry central part of the country (the respondents wrote about the lowering of the water level in wells in Dodoma and its surroundings). Tab. 3. Rivers and streams in which the respondents observed a change in water flow Region Arusha Dar es Salaam + Pwani Dodoma Iringa River/stream Rau, and streams near Karatu Mbezi, Msimbazi, Tegeta Streams in vicinity of Dodoma Great Ruaha Previously Dar es Salaam and Pwani were considered as Coastal region. Taking into account all environmental changes – they received from 42 to 52% of positive answers. 3 4 �Environmental change and adjustments... 105 Kagera Kigoma Kilimanjaro Kagera, Ngono, Kabalobi Muhanga, Mtunguruzi, Kumwambu Kikafu, Mwanjo, and streams flowing down the slopes of Kilimanjaro Lindi Manyara Morogoro Mwanza Rukwa Shinyanga Ruvuma Rondo Bubu, streams in districts Babati and Kondoa Kilombero, Ruhembe Mwongo Nzovwe, Kisa, Mtovisa Homs Ruvuma Source: Students’ field studies, 2010 The fourth question, regarding the observed climate change, received the most positive responses from all the questions (85.7% answers were positive – Yes, changes have taken place). In most regions, the positive responses accounted for over 90% of all responses. However, in the region of Dar es Salaam, there were only 50% of positive answers. In Lindi region, where only one questionnaire was filled, the respondent pointed out the answer – I do not know. It is worth emphasizing that in almost all regions respondents stressed the following facts: precipitation decreased, air temperature rose and the length of the rainy season shortened. The temperature increase is observed especially in the higher altitude areas, which have been told so far to be “cool” – for example, Iringa, and Mbeya. Respondents wrote that nowadays winter is not as cold as it used to be, and one of the consequences is an increase of mosquitoes, and thus the increased incidence of malaria. The increase in the occurrence of malaria was also observed in the regions of Kigoma and Manyara. The increase of temperature has been registered by weather stations. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), the temperature in Africa within XX century rose by 1.0°C. According to the same source, in the period between 1970 �106 Jerzy Gilarowski and 2004, in the eastern, central, and north-eastern part of Tanzania the increase in temperature was 0.2–1.0°C and in western, south-western and southern Tanzania between 1.0 and 2.0°C5. Projections for 2030 indicate that the region will get more rain but become drier as temperatures rise6. For Tanzania, the predicted increase in temperature is between 2.5°C and 4.0°C.7 Parts of the country are projected to receive more rainfall, while the rest of the country – including the drought-prone southern areas – will receive less. Owing to that, the maize productivity is projected to fall in Tanzania in some simulations by 33%8. According to the respondents, the visible consequences of the decrease in precipitation so far are: decline of yields (Singida), single maize harvest during the year instead of two harvests (once in Rungwe), replacement of maize, which requires a bigger amount of water by other, less water demanding crops (Songea). A spectacular consequence of climate change is the gradual melting of the snows on Mount Kilimanjaro and, as mentioned earlier, the reduction of water flow in rivers and streams flowing down its slopes. Several respondents highlighted the fact that the climate is becoming more unstable and unpredictable – for example droughts Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Synthesis Report, Valencia, Spain, 12–17 November 2007 6 According to the respondents, there was a rainfall decrease during the last 30 years, but according to meteorological data, the precipitation remained the same (in general, taking under consideration the whole territory of the country). Higher temperatures, however, intensified the evapotranspiration, and as a consequence less water was available. That is why, in opinion of respondents, there was a rainfall decrease. 7 Murray L., Orindi V., 2005, Adapting to Climate Change in East Africa: A Strategic Approach, Gatekeeper Series 117, International Institute for Environment and Development, London. 8 Ibidem 5 �Environmental change and adjustments... 107 (Iringa, Kagera) and floods (Iringa, Morogoro) are more frequent. Despite the fact that the amount of rainfall (per year) in some places remains the same, the shorter rain season causes more torrential rains, which leads to frequent floods. The fifth question (about soil changes), also in the whole country, achieved a high rate of positive responses (77.1). More than 90% of positive responses were noted in 10 regions: Kagera, Kilimanjaro, Lindi, Mbeya, Mtwara, Rukwa, Shinyanga, Singida, Tabora and Tanga. In other regions, the positive responses constituted 50 percent or more. Only for Zanzibar and Pemba each of the three respondents indicated three different answers – Yes, No, I do not know. Respondents mostly wrote that the decline in soil fertility expresses a significant reduction in crop yields. According to them, the deterioration of the soil quality was mainly caused by its overexploitation (population growth → increase in the intensity of cultivation/ pasture overgrazing → decline in soil fertility) in the conditions of simultaneous unpredictable pattern in the rainfall schedule. Most of the respondents wrote that today, without the use of chemical fertilizers, they cannot obtain such high yield as in the past. However, the use of chemical fertilizers or – as part of the respondents wrote – incompetent use of them, causes the deterioration of soil fertility (students gave several examples from the regions of Dar es Salaam, Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro). All this means that in order to produce enough food for increasing demands (because of population growth), the peasants have to get new land for cultivation. The only way to achieve it is cutting down the natural vegetation in the vicinity. The sixth question related to possible changes in wildlife population. In a positive way (Yes – changes have taken place) less than half of the respondents (42%) answered this question. It is worth noting that only to this question (out of six) positive responses do not constitute a majority. At the same time, it is worth noting the �108 Jerzy Gilarowski fact that the negative responses (No – changes have not taken place) accounted for an even smaller percentage (only 12%). Most of the respondents have indicated the answer – I do not know (46%). This was, unfortunately, largely due to the fact that a significant proportion of respondents took into account changes in the population of wild animals before, when writing a comment to the second question, relating to the depletion of forests (deforestation entails the disappearance of some animal species). Therefore, answering the question number six, significant proportion of respondents indicated neutral response – I do not know (to avoid a kind of repetition, as I was informed later in the classroom). In this case the responses to this question have given quite a distorted picture of the changes in wildlife. It seems that in this case only taking under consideration the number of positive responses (59) and negative ones (17), except for neutral responses (64), will give a more reliable picture of the perception of the change in wildlife. As the comments to this question, respondents stressed that generally outside of protected areas there are less and less wild animals. In six regions respondents noted the disappearance of lions, and in three regions disappearance of elephants, antelopes and hyenas. In individual regions respondents noted the disappearance of buffaloes, giraffes, cheetahs, gazelles, wild pigs, rabbits, hares, and many species of birds. Most of respondents indicated that the main factor in the extinction of animals in certain areas, or moving to other areas, was and is the deforestation. The following table shows the share of positives answers (Yes – changes have taken place) to the three asked questions (Yes, No, I do not know) in different regions. For the reasons mentioned above, with respect to the sixth question only, the column – Wildlife – shows the share of positive responses to the sum of positive and negative ones. The above table shows that in Tanzania 76.2% of all questions about the observed environmental changes were answered posi- �Source: Students’ field studies, 2010 Region (the number between the brackets indicates the number of respondents/ 1. questionnaires per region) Forests Arusha (9) 44,4 Dar es Salaam + Pwani (8) 37,5 Dodoma (3) 100,0 Iringa (21) 61,9 Kagera (16) 81,2 Kigoma (7) 85,7 Kilimanjaro (14) 64,3 Lindi (1) 100,0 Manyara (3) 100,0 Mara (6) 66,7 Mbeya (12) 91,7 Morogoro (6) 100,0 Mtwara (1) 100,0 Mwanza (12) 50,0 Rukwa (2) 50,0 Shinyanga (2) 100,0 Singida (4) 100,0 Ruvuma (5) 80,0 Tabora (1) 100,0 Tanga 4 25,0 Zanzibar + Pemba (3) 66,7 Tanzania (140) 70,0 2. Lakes 44,4 12,5 33,3 57,1 87,5 71,4 64,3 0,0 100,0 100,0 58,3 50,0 100,0 91,7 100,0 0,0 100,0 20,0 100,0 75,0 0,0 62,9 3. Rivers 66,7 50,0 66,7 81,0 87,5 85,7 85,7 100,0 100,0 83,3 83,3 100,0 100,0 25,0 50,0 100,0 50,0 60,0 100,0 50,0 33,3 72,9 4. Climate 77,8 50,0 100,0 81,0 75,0 100,0 92,9 0,0 100,0 100,0 91,7 100,0 100,0 83,3 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 75,0 100,0 85,7 5. Soils 66,7 50,0 66,7 76,2 93,7 57,1 92,9 100,0 66,7 83,3 91,7 66,7 100,0 50,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 80,0 100,0 100,0 33,3 77,1 Categories of environmental change Tab. 4. The percentage of positive answers by administrative regions The percentage of positive answers to all questions (an average 6. of 6 questions) Wildlife 75,0 62,5 66,7 44,4 100,0 77,8 77,8 72,5 100,0 87,5 100,0 83,3 75,0 79,2 0,0 50,0 100,0 94,4 60,0 82,2 80,0 82,8 20,0 72,8 100,0 100,0 50,0 58,3 100,0 83,3 100,0 83,3 100,0 91,7 100,0 73,3 100,0 100,0 66,7 65,3 100,0 55,6 77,6 76,2 Environmental change and adjustments... 109 �110 Jerzy Gilarowski tively. As can be seen from the table, the most altered regions in terms of environmental change (taking into account the percentage of positive answers – Yes, changes have taken place) are: Mtwara, Tabora (100% of positive answers)9, Manyara, Singida (over 90%) and Kagera, Kigoma, Rukwa, Shinyanga, Mara and Mbeya (80%). The regions of the slightest environmental changes are: Dar es Salaam + Pwani (44.4%), Lindi (50.0%), Pemba, Zanzibar + (55.6), Mwanza (58.3% of positive answers). According to the survey, among 6 categories of environmental change, the changes in the elements of climate were mostly noticed (85.7% of positive answers). It should be emphasized, that the symptoms of climate change in Tanzania presented by respondents reflect the global climate change patterns. Globally and locally, the irregular rains decrease amounts of accessible water. Global warming will produce significant changes in evaporation and precipitation, and, as a result the hydrological cycle, will be more unpredictable. Higher air temperatures will increase evaporation from the oceans, and evaporation from land, so less water will be available in soils, lakes and rivers. These changes will modify rainfall patterns and will produce more extreme weather events, including floods and droughts (what is taking place in Tanzania, and what has been described by respondents in questionnaires). The decreasing amount of accessible water is a phenomenon that the whole world is facing. It is also connected with the increase of population, which is taking place mainly in poor countries, and lack of investments in irrigation, and water infrastructure in general (Tanzania is an example). The decrease in the amount of accessible water in the World is presented on the following graph. It should be noted, however, that in these regions only one questionnaire was filled. 9 �Environmental change and adjustments... 111 Fig. 1. Decrease in the amount of accessible water per person in the group of the chosen countries in the years 1950–2000 Source: UNDP, 2006, Human Development Report. Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, New York. Human Development Report (2006) foreshadows that the amount of population facing water scarcity will be growing above all in the poorest regions of the world. For instance, in 1990, in Sub-Saharan Africa 100 million people lived under conditions of water shortage. In 2005, this amount rose to 300 million but it is estimated that in 2025 it will come to 750 million people. How, and at which degree will this water shortage influence development in the world’s poorest countries? In African countries with subequatorial climate there is a close relationship between rainfall amount and Gross Domestic Product. It mainly results from the dependence of those countries’ economies (which mostly rely on agriculture) on water supply, which due to the lack of retention depends on rainfall regime. In Sub-Saharan Africa only 3% of land under cultivation is irrigated and in Tanzania about �112 Jerzy Gilarowski Fig. 2. GDP mirrors rainfall regime in Ethiopia Source: UNDP, 2006, Human Development Report, op. cit. 5–10%10. The remaining 90–95% of farmland depends merely on climatic conditions. The figure below illustrates the dependence of Sub-Saharan Africa’s agriculture (national economy in general) on the rainfall regime. The figure presents the situation in Ethiopia, but the same situation and the same mechanism can be observed in other countries of this region. The figure below presents the relationship between climate change and cereal productivity in Africa. As it can be seen on the map, the most significant fall in productivity in Tanzania, in the period 2000–2080, will be partially in Tanga, Iringa, Ndjombe and Mtwara regions. The productivity will decrease also in south-east, west and north-west of the country. As it was mentioned before, because of the decrease of the available water for crop production, the maize productivity is projected to fall in Tanzania up to 10 UNDP, 2006. Human Development Report, op. cit. �Environmental change and adjustments... 113 Fig. 3. Climate change and cereal productivity in Africa Source: Fisher and others, 2005, in: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2006 2030 by 33%11. Taking these facts into consideration, the following question arises – what Tanzania should do to face the consequences of climate change (or more specifically – the decrease in productivity, and finally – a shortage of food)? In my opinion a set of actions should be undertaken, and should work in concert. 11 Murray, L., Orindi, V., 2005, op. cit. �114 Jerzy Gilarowski The main of them are: to change/adjust the existing structure of crop production to climatic changes, to improve the techniques of cultivation, to build well studied irrigation systems, and finally to create functional system of food storage. Adaptation of the structure of production to climate change should take place mainly in these areas, in which, for various reasons, the irrigation systems will not be built (for example, adverse topographical and geological conditions). Plants with less water and soil requirements should replace these with higher requirements (for example, sorghum instead of corn or cassava instead of potatoes). Appropriate/optimal choice of crops should be carried out with the help of extension officers. With the change of cultivated plants, production techniques will also change. The most important change will aim to reduce evapotranspiration and retain water in the soil. There are many ways of doing that. The simplest and a very effective one is a complete coverage of the field during the growing season by unused parts of crops from the previous harvest (leaves, stems) and increasing the amount of humus in soil (humus is an excellent water absorbent). The biggest challenge, however, puts the construction of irrigation systems and water retention. All water projects must be coordinated with one another to avoid situations in which one system is running against another – for example depriving it of water. This will require not only carrying out the specialized research/surveys (for example geomorphological and hydrological), but it must also take into account the existing technical infrastructure and functioning economic linkages. Also, demographic situation must be analyzed so that the implementation of the projects did not lead to the social conflicts. A deficiency of any good always creates conflicts at the local, regional, national or international level. Solving conflicts within the country is the responsibility of the government and local authorities. However, the greatest threat to peace creates the claim to the �Environmental change and adjustments... 115 same natural resource by several countries. In the case of East and North-East Africa, climate change, and thus a reduction in access to water, can lead to conflict between the countries lying in this region. The potential and very real conflict is connected with the access to water from the Nile and may involve 9 African countries situated on its shores. The tensions over water among these countries are becoming more and more apparent and show the significant role played by that river in economy and politics of those countries. So far, the rules concerning the Nile water consumption were based, to a wide extent, on a colonial agreement dating back to 1929, signed by Great Britain (that controlled a vast part of the Nile basin), independent Egypt and Sudan that was under control of Great Britain and Egypt. As a result of this agreement, Egypt was allowed to consume annually 48 billion cubic meters of the Nile water, while Sudan 4 billion cubic meters. Furthermore, Egypt obtained the right to monitor the Nile water flow in the countries located in the upper part of the basin, as well as to hinder there any investments involving the Nile water intake (if such investments could reduce the river level). As a result, any commission of irrigation system or dams on the Nile and its tributaries required Egyptian agreement. In 1959 the governments of Egypt and independent Sudan signed another agreement which stated that both countries had the right to 90% of the Nile water consumption (80% for Egypt and 10% for Sudan). The remaining countries situated at the river basin, which were not asked for any approval (they were still European colonies), were left with only 10%. Such division was based on the signatories’ assumption that rainfall rates in the southern countries are big enough so that they do not need to consume the Nile water, while Egypt and Sudan depend entirely on the river. Egypt was entitled to veto any investment on the Nile and its tributaries. After all the countries in the Nile basin gained independence, they started suggesting that the water division is unjust. Already in �116 Jerzy Gilarowski 1961, in the independence year, the president of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere announced that agreements between Egypt and Sudan do not apply to Tanzania. At the same time he stressed the fact that his country is ready for negotiations with regard to a new, just water division12. Since then other countries in the Nile basin have also been making similar statements, however, due to the lack of funds for water investments these were only temporary expressions of discontent. On the other hand, the growing problem of more and more common droughts in the region, especially severe in Ethiopia, has led in recent years to widespread criticism of Egyptian-Sudanese agreement. In May 2009, seven countries of the Nile basin: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda accepted a new agreement that entitled them to wider water consumption in the Nile and its tributaries. However, the governments of Egypt and Sudan do not want to discuss any changes in the already existing agreement. They do not want to accept any reduction in the Nile water consumption. The relations between Egypt and Sudan and the other countries of the Nile basin are very tense and finding a solution certainly will not be easy. On the one hand, Egypt and Sudan are almost completely dependent on water from the Nile. On the other hand, other countries faced more and more often with drought problems (which are connected with global warming) demand the right to investments without Egyptian consent. It is difficult to explain to them why they cannot build irrigation systems without Egyptian permission and consequently eliminate the spectre of hunger. Fields’ irrigation is a priority for Ethiopia with its 80-million population, with half of Ethiopians living in the Nile basin. It is also particularly The Citizen, What’s next in row on Nile Waters, Wednesday, 26 May 2010, Dar es Salaam. 12 �Environmental change and adjustments... 117 important for the drier, north-eastern part of Tanzania, as well as for eastern Rwanda and Burundi. It is hard to disagree with arguments presented by both sides of the conflict. There are requests for more benefits and there are some threats too. Subsequent presidents of Egypt threatened with military intervention in case of reduction in water flow in the Nile caused by any country situated in the basin. The Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Meles Zenawi, has even announced that if Egypt tried to prohibit his country the Nile water consumption, then it would have to occupy Ethiopia. He also said that Egypt, which is covered with desert, has troops of soldiers trained for fighting in a jungle, which probably means that they are prepared for battles in jungles of East African countries13. It seems that no one is going to retreat as it is the matter of “to be or not to be”. And it is probably high time the United Nations and the African Union dealt with this serious issue. * * * In 2013, I repeated the same survey using the same questionnaires, but this time at the University of Iringa. The study involved 90 students of the Faculty of Science and Education. As in the case of Dodoma, students were attending my lecture on Climatology, and the study took place during the Easter break. In the meantime Tanzania changed the administrative division of the country – a couple of new regions have been created due to the division of some pre-existing ones. The new regions were taken into consideration. On the other hand, because there were no students from Tabora and Zanzibar this time, we cannot compare the results of 2010 and 2013 surveys in these regions. The results of 2013 survey show the two tables below. The Citizen, The Nile: Is a big water war looming?, Saturday, 29 May, 2010, Dar es Salaam. 13 �Y 10 2 2 1 9 3 2 7 1 1 3 22 3 1 4 3 1 4 2 1 7 89 1 N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 ? Y N ? 0 3 1 6 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 4 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 4 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 13 6 3 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 3 2 47 20 25 2 Y 7 3 0 1 5 1 2 7 1 1 1 18 3 1 4 3 1 3 0 0 7 69 N 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 7 3 ? 0 0 2 0 4 2 0 1 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 16 Y 8 2 2 1 5 2 1 7 1 1 3 18 3 1 3 2 1 4 2 0 6 73 N 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 11 4 ? Y N 1 9 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 8 1 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 7 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 3 0 2 20 2 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 5 1 8 80 8 5 6 ? Y N ? 1 9 1 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 5 2 2 0 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 4 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 14 6 2 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 3 2 2 4 61 18 13 Number of responses to individual questions Source: Students’ field studies, 2013 (10) – the number of completed questionnaires in the region Y – Yes, changes have taken place; N – No, changes haven’t taken place; ? – I don’t know Tot – the number of questions asked in the region (number of completed questionnaires x 6 questions) Arusha (10) Dar es Salaam + Pwani (3) Dodoma (2) Geita (1) Iringa (9) Kagera (3) Kigoma (2) Kilimanjaro (8) Lindi (1) Manyara (1) Mara (3) Mbeya (22) Morogoro (3) Mtwara (1) Mwanza (4) Nyombe (3) Rukwa (1) Ruvuma (5) Shinyanga (2) Singida (1) Tanga (7) Tanzania (92) Region The total number of responses for the region and for the whole country Tot Y N ? 60 46 6 8 18 13 1 4 12 6 0 6 6 6 0 0 54 35 10 9 18 13 0 5 12 10 0 2 48 36 7 5 6 4 2 0 6 6 0 0 18 16 0 2 132 105 17 10 18 16 1 1 6 5 1 0 24 19 4 1 0 4 18 14 6 6 0 0 30 22 8 0 12 6 2 4 6 3 2 1 42 32 4 6 552 419 65 68 Tab. 5. Comparison of responses to asked questions by administrative regions of Tanzania (respondents/ students from the University of Iringa) 118 Jerzy Gilarowski �Source: Students’ field studies, 2013 Region (the number between the brackets indicates the number of respondents/ questionnaires per region) Arusha (10) Dar es Salaam + Pwani (3) Dodoma (2) Geita (1) Iringa (9) Kagera (3) Kigoma (2) Kilimanjaro (8) Lindi (1) Manyara (1) Mara (3) Mbeya (22) Morogoro (3) Mtwara (1) Mwanza (4) Nyombe (3) Rukwa (1) Ruvuma (5) Shinyanga (2) Singida (1) Tanga (7) Tanzania (92) 1. Forests 100,0 66,7 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 87,5 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 80,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 96,7 2. Lakes 30,0 33,3 50,0 100,0 33,3 33,3 100,0 50,0 0,0 100,0 100,0 59,1 33,3 100,0 75,0 33,3 100,0 60,0 0,0 0,0 57,1 51,1 3. Rivers 70,0 100,0 0,0 100,0 55,6 33,3 0,0 87,5 100,0 33,3 33,3 81,8 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 60,0 0,0 0,0 100,0 75,0 4. Climate 80,0 66,7 100,0 100,0 55,6 66,7 50,0 87,5 100,0 100,0 100,0 81,8 100,0 100,0 75,0 66,7 100,0 80,0 100,0 0,0 85,7 80,7 5. Soils 90,0 100,0 50,0 100,0 88,9 100,0 50,0 87,5 0,0 100,0 100,0 90,9 100,0 0,0 75,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 71,4 81,1 Categories of environmental change The percentage of positive answers to all 6. questions (an average Wildlife of 6 questions) 90,0 76,7 66,7 72,3 0,0 50,0 100,0 100,0 55,6 64,8 100,0 72,2 100,0 66,7 50,0 75,0 100,0 66,7 100,0 88,9 100,0 88,9 63,6 79,6 100,0 88,9 100,0 83,3 50,0 79,2 66,7 77,8 100,0 100,0 60,0 73,3 0,0 50,0 100,0 50,0 42,9 76,2 73,6 76,4 Tab. 6. The percentage of positive answers by administrative regions (respondents/students from the University of Iringa) Environmental change and adjustments... 119 �120 Jerzy Gilarowski References Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2007), Synthesis Report, Valencia, Spain, 12–17 November, 2007. Murray L., Orindi V., (2005), Adapting to Climate Change in East Africa: A Strategic Approach, Gatekeeper Series 117, International Institute for Environment and Development, London. “The Citizen”, What’s next in row on Nile Waters, Wednesday, 26 May 2010, Dar es Salaam. “The Citizen”, The Nile: Is a big water war looming?, Saturday, 29 May, 2010, Dar es Salaam. UNDP, 2006, Human Development Report. Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, New York, http://www.fao.org/ forestry/country/32185/en/tza/ (February 2015). �Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE UNEMPLOYMENT IN TANZANIA Abstract In Tanzania, following the liberalization of higher education from the mid-1990-s, the number of graduates has been growing each year. This has resulted in the creation of a growing number of job-seeking alumni. If the motive behind cost sharing is to cut down enrollment and ultimately reduce the unemployment rate among graduates, then it will take time for the results of this measure to be visible. At institutional level, there have been initiatives such as reviewing academic programmes to make them more marketable and advocating for education which aims at educating job creators and not job seekers. Notwithstanding this backdrop, employment opportunities for graduates are limited. Currently, many higher education graduates are facing a dilemma as to whether they should continue with the job search or go for further studies. However, none of these options is readily accessible to many of these graduates. Flora O. Kasumba – PhD, Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences, currently teaching at University of Iringa (UoI) Tanzania, Faculty of Education and Social Sciences. Her research concerns teaching and learning in higher education. She contributed a chapter on Sustainable Development and Youth Employment in Tanzania. Robert Lukelo – Master’s degree in Community Development and Project Management at UoI. Together with other two Iringa University College alumni he owns an Animation and Visual Effects company which is based in Dar es Salaam Tanzania. He is a co-author of a chapter on Sustainable Development and Youth Employment in Tanzania. �122 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo Successful implementation of a plan that addresses graduates’ unemployment problem in Tanzania requires the presence of graduates’ knowledge, skills, and a supportive environment. It is in the light of this, that this paper discusses sustainable development as one of the avenues for employment opportunities whereby a larger proportion of these graduates will not join the job searching band, but given their knowledge and skills they will use available resources to improve their well-being without compromising the needs of the next generation. This paper attempts to answer the following questions: What do graduates choose or wish to have? What has been available? How can their goals be realized? Background of Sustainable Development At the global level, the term ‘Sustainable Development” can be traced back to the United Nations Conference on human environment, held in Stockholm in 1972. It is used to refer to development which meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (UN, 1989). Twenty years after the Stockholm conference, in 1992, the term became prominent in the discussions that made the global environment a matter of priority. The United Nations World Summit (2005) affirmed the concept of sustainability, economic, social and environmental factors that need to be taken into consideration and their cultural context. Further Sustainable Development philosophy has evolved to show how individuals and communities behave and interact with the earth. At the level of education, sustainable development has been defined as the process of equipping students with knowledge and understanding, skills and attributes needed to work and live in a way that safeguards environmental, social and economic wellbeing, both in the present and for future generations (UN, 2005). In essence, sustainable development in education entails an enabling �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 123 environment in which student factors including their age, gender, background and the teaching context interact to facilitate learning that promotes self-regulated learning, critical thinking, creativity and commitment to the well-being of self and others. The assumption is that the education system would enable students to acquire these skills and attributes so that they are able to find employment. However, there is a growing global outcry for skills mismatch among young people (ILO, 2014). The report also shows that youth employment rate and projections by regions of the world is on an upward trend. This paper reflects key issues in the national policies and practice in the provision of higher education in Tanzania along the lines of Sustainable Development. It also highlights the provision of higher education in the country and the general outcry for graduate employment in the country. Although this paper addresses higher education, graduate reference is also made to youth employment status and occasionally the term is used to refer to both. Sustainable development is not a new concept in the policies that have governed the provision of education in Tanzania. The baseline has been the provision of education which is relevant to society. The purpose of Education for Self Reliance (ESR), for example, was to impart values of cooperation, sharing and service to the community. It also directed the curriculum to integrate theoretical and practical skills. In essence, ESR had the potential for the development of attributes and skills such as team spirit, problem solving skills and commitment. These attributes closely match global goals for sustainable development in education. In practice, the concept of Sustainable Development in Tanzania has been articulated through both the Higher Education Policy (1999) and the National Strategic Development Plan �124 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo (2010). The Tanzania National Higher Education Policy (1999), for example, points out the need for changing higher education sector through: – Need for specialized skills; – Need for new emerging areas of science and technology e.g. biotechnology, environmental science, genetic engineering, microelectronics and informatics; – Need for entrepreneurship; – Need for globalization and international competitiveness; – Need for sustainability of higher education by resource reallocation; – Need for social democracy and good governance. However, the realization of these needs has been complicated by increased enrollment and dwindling resources allocation. From this understanding this paper reviews the provision of higher education and graduate unemployment in Tanzania within the context of sustainable development. Higher education development in Tanzania Since independence in 1961, Tanzania has been guided by the Manpower Requirement Approach (MRA) in its expansion of higher education. As a result of limited government resources allocation, higher education expansion was difficult to achieve. This explains why for more than three decades there has been only one higher education institution in the country, the University of Dar es Salaam. From 1961, when the first university was established in Tanzania, to the early 1990-s, higher education provision was solely controlled by the government. In an attempt to expand opportunities for higher education, many of the private institutions were established after 1996 (TCU, 2007). In spite of this, higher education �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 125 attendance in Tanzania has been low compared to other countries in East and Central Africa. Table 1 shows higher education enrollment trends in Tanzania over a fifty-year period. Table 1: Higher education enrollment over a fifty-year period Year 1961 1981 2001 2011 Number of university graduates 14 2,586 14,568 135,367 Source: Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania: Various Years. It should be also understood that higher education in Tanzania has been characterized by two contending variables. The first is the social demand for higher education. Although the government placed restrictions on higher education expansion, there was a growing demand for this level of education particularly due to expansion of primary education especially through the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme between 1974 and 1978, and the subsequent expansion of secondary school education. The second is the limited available higher education opportunities whereby over the years efforts to expand higher education could not match the needs of students who qualified for public universities. Following the liberalization of higher education from the mid1990-s, the number of graduates has been growing each year. This trend is to be traced back to 1980-s when Tanzania embarked upon the structural adjustment programmes that included the privatization of education and other services. Thus, from the mid1990-s, Tanzania started to witness the expansion of the higher education sector through the establishment of higher education learning institutions and emergence of diverse programmes in both public and private sectors of higher education. Table 2 shows higher education enrollment trends in Tanzania over some years. �126 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo Table 2: Students enrollment in higher education from 2006/2007 to 2010/2011 Year 2006/2007 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 82,529 101,222 123,434 135,367 No. of students 49,967 enrolled Source: TCU, (2013). According to the Tanzania Commission for Universities’ (TCU, 2007), the annual enrollment of fresh graduates in Tanzania in both public and private universities and university colleges in the year 2006/07 was about 49,967 students. Traditionally, university education or formal education has generally been considered to be the passport to the paid employment and the government was the main employer. However, following the liberalization of higher education from the mid-1990-s, the number of graduates has been growing each year. This has resulted in the creation of a growing number of job seeking alumni. The introduction of Government Students Loans in the 2005/2006 academic year has provided opportunities for a large number of Tanzanians to get admission to university. Notwithstanding the growing number of graduates, those who are employed constitute only a small fraction of those who graduate from higher education institutions. A larger proportion of those who do not get into employment is high. For example, every year less than ten percent of school and college graduates in Tanzania find employment in the formal sector (World Bank, 2014). According to the report, this group of youth consists of college graduates from almost more than 25 accredited higher education institutions. It has also been reported that there were 324,597 higher education graduates in Tanzania in 2012 (URT, 2015). The growing number of unemployed graduates shows that job vacancies available are not enough to absorb the graduates. The �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 127 system and education acquired at the universities have little effect on promoting the unemployed youth to create their own jobs. This has resulted in the creation of a growing number of job seeking alumni. As a result of cultural attitudes, graduates are unwilling to get into self-employment because of lack of knowledge, skills and financial capability, and lack of right social attitudes (Youth Research Foundation in Tanzania, 2014). As a result, there is an endless job hunting phenomenon. The ILO 2007–2017 report projections show that in most regions of the world youth unemployment rate is on an upward trend. It is even more so in the Sub-Saharan region. Comparatively, figures for youth unemployment in Tanzania appear to be lower. However, the state of unemployment among youth has reached proportions that are difficult to control. Lack of the required skills is one of the factors that impinge on youth employment. The major problem has been that of skills mismatch and it has tended to be more prevalent among young women than men (ILO, 2013). This may explain why youth tends to work in irregular jobs, or go for jobs that are lower compared to their educational level or keep moving from one job to another. The ILO report further projects a longterm impact of the employment crisis and poor quality, informal, subsistence job in developing countries. Studies show that Tanzania has more than 24-million-labour force capable of getting involved in production, however most graduates believe that formal employment is the best option for employment. The number of vacancies announced cannot be compared to the number of graduates who seek employment, Young Researchers Foundation Tanzania (YRFT), (2014). Figure 1 shows the multitude of job seeking alumni, assembled at the national stadium in Dar es Salaam, and taking part in the preliminary exercise of filling forms for a job interview. Out of this entire crowd only 70 job vacancies were available. �128 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo 1. In June 2014, more than 10,000 graduates were called for a job interview in Dar es Salaam for 70 job positions which were announced by the Ministry of Home Affairs Source: Mathias, J. (2014, September 9) Mwananchi. Retrived from http://www.mwananchi. co.tz/Makala/Ugumu-wa-kupata-ajira-kwa-wahitimu-wa-Kitanzania/-/1597592/2446678//3ce5cyz/-/index.html. With the increase of higher education institutions in the country, graduates output has been growing tremendously. While only a few of them have been absorbed in government and private employment, a larger proportion of university alumni are unemployed or tend to shift from one employment to another because they are not satisfied with the job conditions or they came to terms with the demands of the world of employment. Out of desperation, as the report by ILO (2013) shows, youth are more likely to land low quality jobs in the informal economy than in jobs paying decent wages. The discrepancy between education skills and the labour market requirement in Tanzania has greatly contributed to graduate unemployment. The higher education system has not been updated �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 129 to match the changes in formal and informal economy that are happening fast. For example, a great number of universities enroll a high number of students in courses such as business. In the real sense, business students are taught a lot of theory without practice related to the real life settings. The education system does not provide enough room for students to acquire skills that would help them to get accommodated in the dynamic world of employment. As a result, students graduate with the theoretical basis of business rather than with the experiential studies of real business life. In the end they fail to secure a job in the labour market and they also fail to employ themselves. Due to such discrepancies half skilled graduates end up in indecent work in order to make ends meet. They get into indecent work such as cybercrimes, corn artists, stealing of public properties and hacking as well as being used by gangs and rebels. However, indecent work is not sustainable work. Decent work is the one that promotes an individual’s well-being. It is also a form of work that is a source of personal dignity, family stability, and peace in the community (ILO, 2013). On these grounds, what may appear to youth as fast money making business undertakings undermines the whole concept of sustainable development. Tanzania education discrepancies can be traced in its early stages whereby it fails to identify and nurture special skills and abilities that students have had ever since they were young. From the primary school level, secondary school levels there are no efforts to assist students who are good at art, sports or science. The education system is theoretical and emphasis is placed on getting good grades and passing examinations instead of focusing on practical knowledge that students could use in the future. In some schools art and sports are banned, students are forced to study either business or science. As a result, students talented in arts do not perform well in science subjects or business subjects and they also lack that opportunity to nurture what they are good at. Those who are fortunate perform �130 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo average and get their way to college with lost dreams. At college they end up studying any course in order to get a degree and enter the world of work to get a job that does not match their in-built ability and skills. Such kind of graduates find themselves doing works they have never dreamed of doing, they just work to earn their living. Some would move from one job to another or sometimes even quit a job as they find it boring or hard because they do not have the passion for such work. In some cases such graduates have been reported to be less innovative, none hard workers, incompetent and unable to work with others. Higher education institutions have taken this as a challenge and as a result they have embarked on diversifying programmes or initiating new programmes, or reviewing curriculum or courses that would make the students more marketable in the world of work. These constant reviews are an indication that Higher education institutions are aware of the ever changing demands of consumers for their products. Studies at the University of Dar es Salaam (Mkude & Ishumi, 2004) found out that the institutions had lecturers, but there was a shortage of materials, equipment and space. Graduates reported to have learnt useful skills but wished for more. Employers were less impressed by limited English proficiency, low communication skills, problem solving ability, innovativeness and creativity as well as negative attitudes towards other workers and unwillingness to learn. It is clear from such studies that there is a need to review curriculum and monitor academic programmes. It is important that the provided education meets global standards. The shift in the demand for non-cognitive jobs cannot be overlooked. It is imperative that in addition to cognitive skills students need to acquire skills in areas of entrepreneurship, such as problem solving, interpersonal communication, conflict resolution, negotiation, and team working. �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 131 At the national level, the government has also formulated policies such as the National Youth Development Policy (1996; 2007). In addition, the names of ministries that are associated with the youth and employment have been changing to reflect the challenging nature of youth employment. For example, the Ministry of Labour and Employment 2012 was formally the Ministry of Information, Youth Culture and Sports 2006. However, policies that are in place or nomenclature may not solve the problem of graduate unemployment if they are not accompanied by consideration of social and environmental factors that are found in the country. However, inequality and corruption mar the government’s efforts in addressing unemployment among graduates and youth in general. As the rate of unemployment grows, the private sector has not been growing fast enough to absorb higher education graduates. The challenges that the private sector faces in Tanzania include: financial incapability, lack of job security, lack of entrepreneurial skills and social attitudes towards self-employment. Individuals have tended to prefer government employment because of the job security it offers and the longevity of employment. For example, the promise of 700,000 job vacancies for youth in the country is one of such government initiatives (URT, 2014). These jobs would be created from the implementation of various development projects in the public sector, youth employment through the Tanzania Investment Center (TIC) and Export Processing Zones Authority (EPZA). However, such efforts need to be continuous if sustainable development is to be achieved. What has been available? Natural resources Tanzania has been endowed with vast resources which have not been exploited. Sustainable use of such resources could enable �132 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo graduates to create their own employment as well as enable the future generation to create more self-employment through the same resources. This will in a long run reduce the number of unemployed graduates who are constantly looking forward to be employed in the formal sector. Such resources include: land, water, minerals, natural gas and forests. For example, Tanzania has been endowed with fertile land to support cultivation of different types of crops, fruits and flowers, which could offer self-employment for graduates. Tanzanian land comes along with the tourism industry, which could be beneficial for graduates to create self-employment. Water resources have a lot to offer, such as fishing; the fishing industry is mostly done by local fishermen who have no training on how to make the business generate income and create employment for countless members of the society. If graduates were involved in the fishing industry, it would be more thriving than it is nowadays. Apparently, graduates are unable to make effective use of the available resources due to a number of factors. When it comes to investing in minerals, natural foreign investors are given priority over local investors. Illegal activities such as poaching are also deteriorating the tourism sector, which would also offer a platform for graduates to employ themselves. Generally, there has been an ineffective management of all natural resources, which could be the source of employment for Tanzanian graduates. Policies on sustainable development and graduate employment A number of policies, programmes and plans on sustainable development still exist as well as the policies to support the selfemployment for graduates. However, such policies are not implemented accordingly (Business Times, 2012). Examples of these policies are The National Youth Employment Policy, National Environmental Policy, (1979), Agricultural Marketing Policy (1992), �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 133 National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction, (2005–2010), Property and Business Formalization Programme, (2007). These plans could be avenues for creating job opportunities for graduates and in the country. However, success in the implementation of these policies is hampered by poor follow up and corruption. Unexploited business opportunities The Tanzania economy still depends on the importation of goods from outside the country. However, the available labour force within the country has the ability to produce different types of goods. However, areas like science and technology have not been exploited as scientific and technological inventions are not promoted as they should be. Following the liberalization of the economy in the 1980-s, the Tanzania market is still dominated by imported foreign goods. Imported products are normally cheaper and of better quality, hence they end up waging an unbalanced competition against locally produced versions. In the long run the goods have outdrawn local graduate entrepreneurs from producing similar products within the country. However, with the changes in lifestyle, Tanzania graduates are still in a better position to produce goods of African origin which cannot be easily produced abroad. They could still be still in high demand to both locals and foreigners. These include African outfits, medicine and herbs, African ornaments, tools of labour, art, packaging of African foods and spices, and architecture for recreation. All these have not been exploited as they should but could offer greater self-employment opportunities for graduates. In Tanzania, the habit of taking a heart of self-employing is not likely to be as fast as one desires, because of the number of factors including the preparations made through the education curriculum, lack of right social attitudes as the societies bank �134 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo their beliefs in searching for jobs. In addition, inadequate financial capability is one of the major aspects hampering youth initiatives for self-employment. In some cases, graduates from well-to-do families can have access to capital so they start their business. But in most cases such business fail and the founders join other graduates in looking for employment in government or other offices. An interview, conducted for the purpose of this paper with some graduates who had capital and intended to launch an Information Technology consultancy company which failed in the end, revealed that despite having capital to run the business the graduates did not have enough skills and knowledge needed to run the business. Their business went bankrupt hence they had to part ways and look for employment in the government sector just like other graduates who had no access to capital. How can their goals be realized? In a survey by YRFT (2014), it was found that a number of graduates had big dreams before joining the labour market as they hoped to use their education to improve their lives. In turn, the situation was different. However, their dreams could not be realized. As the labour market conditions do not seem to accommodate majority of graduates, therefore there is a need to review the curriculum so that it is more practical. Such education will open students’ minds into the real world of work and expose them to all its challenges and what it takes to be a successful entrepreneur. Apart from that, practical education will enable graduates to become more confident in undertaking projects as well as realize their capabilities instead, of ending up jobless. Education for sustainable development should be integrated into the higher education system within universities. Students should �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 135 be taught how to protect the environment and resources as well as make use of them in a way that will be more productive and at the same time not depreciating such resources so that they can be reused to sustain a living as well as make the resources available for the future generation. Government policies should aim at creating conducive environment for graduates who want to employ themselves. More emphasis should be placed on issues such as loans: the government should specify the conditions for graduates to obtain loans and grants especially when they intend to employ themselves. Also, the investment environment should not favor foreigners only, but locals as well. This will instill the spirit of patriotism in Tanzanians. It is also the responsibility of parents to support graduates financially so that they become entrepreneurs. Apparently, most graduates wish to become entrepreneurs but they have no access to loans which are offered by the government and other financial institutions. Parents need to change the mentality that formal employment is the only source of stable income their children can have, but with the rising trend of unemployment they need to understand that graduates need to be self-employed instead of wasting a lot of time looking for employment without success. Moreover, families and community need to start pulling resources together so as to invest in economic activities that are sustainable instead of wasteful spending of money in social functions such as expensive weddings, kitchen parties, and many social functions which have become the order of the day in our society. Recently, the University of Iringa has started raising awareness about entrepreneurship among staff and students. This involves changing the methods of teaching and learning to reflect entrepreneurial teaching and learning, and also encouraging students to start and run businesses and establishing strategic UniversityIndustry linkages. �136 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo There is a need to formalize entertainment activities so that they also become formal employment opportunities to graduates. These include sports, music and performing arts. Other measures should include controlling indecent work like prostitution, drug abuse, counterfeit and cyber-crimes. There is a need to invest in agriculture because there is a lot of arable land, but youth are reluctant to invest in agriculture for two reasons. Firstly, graduates lack capital to invest in this sector of agriculture. Secondly, in the society mindset, agriculture is for the uneducated. This calls for a need to commercialize agriculture. Finally, it is apparent that the aspirations of many Tanzanians are to see a growing number of university graduates enter into one form of employment or another. However, it is important that Sustainable Development continues to be a top agenda in the education system as well as in the policies that govern resources deployment in the country. References “Business Times”, (2011). Tanzania: unemployment rate drops by 1 per cent in five years, http://www.businesstimes.co.tz/index. php?option=com_content&id=1597:-tanzania-unemploymentrate-drops-by-1-per-ce (February 2015).http://www.businesstimes.co.tz/index.php?option=com_content&id=1597:-tanzaniaunemployment-rate-drops-by-1-per-cent-in-five-years&Itemid=57 ILO, (2014), Decent work agenda: promoting decent work for all, “http:// www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/decent-work (February 2015). Longhurst J. (2014), Education for sustainable development: Guidance for UK higher education providers, Higher Education Academy, http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Educationsustainable-development-Guidance-June-14.pdf, (January, 2015). Mathias, J. (2014 September 9), Ugumu wa kupata ajira kwa wahitimu wa Kitanzania. Mwananchi, http://www.mwananchi.co.tz/ �SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GRADUATE... 137 Makala/Ugumu-wa-kupata-ajira-kwa-wahitimu-wa-Kitanzania//1597592/2446678/-/3ce5cyz/-/index.html, (February 2015). Mkude, J. D. & Ishumi, A.G. (2004), Tracer studies in a quest for academic improvement. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press. Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU), (2007), http//: www. tcu.go.tz/images/pdf/Enrollment trend.pdf, (February 2015). TCU, (2013),: http//: www.tcu.go.tz/images/pdf/Enrollment trend.pdf, (February 2015). TCU, (2007), http//:Enrollment trend in Universities and University Colleges Retrieved from: http//: ww.tcu.go.tz/images/pdf/Enrollment trend.pdf, (February 2015). UNDP (1999), United Nations, (UN), (1987). Our common future. Oxford: University Oxford Press. UN, (2005), 2005 World Summit Outcome, http://www.who.int/hiv/ universalaccess2010/worldsummit.pdf. United Republic of Tanzania (URT), (2014), National Higher Education Policy. Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. University of Iringa, (2014), Tumaini University. Development Strategic Plan 2014\8 2019\20. URT, (2014), Formal Sector Employment and Earning Survey, National Bureau of Statistics. Ministry of Finance. URT, (2010), National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty II, Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs URT, (2014), Formal Sector Employment and Earnings Survey. National Bureau of Statistics. Dar es Salaam. Ministry of Finance URT, (2015), Literacy and Education Monograph: 2012 Population and Housing Census. National Bureau of Statistics. World Bank, (2014), Final report. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http:// documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/09/20182306/tanzania-productive-jobs-wanted-vol-2-2-final-report, (February 2015). �138 Flora O. Kasumba & Mr. Robert Lukelo Young Researchers Foundation Tanzania (YRFT), (2014), Employment Situation for Graduates after College, http://researchersfoundation.org/downloads/AN%20ARTICLE2.pdf, (February 2015). UNDP, (2014), Human Development, Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience; http://hdr.undp.org/ en/2014-report/ (February 2015). �Jarosław Różański OMI MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL CULTURES Abstract Regular missionary activity in Northern Cameroon began late (in 1946). The beginning initiatives in development assistance undertaken by missionaries in Cameroon involved local mission stations. They included various aspects of everyday life, mainly schooling, health care, agricultural development, and charitable activities. With the passage of time and the development of Church structures this development assistance has taken on diocesan structures and has broadened its field of activity. Key words: North Cameroon, Missions of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, missions in Cameroon, assistance for development, schooling in Cameroon, training in Cameroon, health care in Cameroon. * * * Northern Cameroon differs substantially from the southern lands of Cameroon geographically, climatically, and ethnically. It even has its own distinct history, especially of pre-colonial times. It has always been perceived, by the inhabitants of the south, and previously by the colonial rulers, and even by the first travelers and anthropologists, Jarosław Różański OMI – Professor, Head of Institute of the Dialogue of Cultures and Religion. His research interests are: missiology, missiological anthropology, missions in Africa, cultures of Central Sudan and inculturation. �140 Jarosław Różański OMI as a more backward part of the country, and completely Islamified. The majority of ethnic groups of northern Cameroon however keep to their cultural traditions and beliefs, not surrendering to Islamicization. These peoples call themselves the „Kirdi.” The name „Kirdi” was given to them by Islamic invaders and has been more or less universally accepted in European literature. After Cameroon gained independence there began an interesting process of the birth of a new Kirdi awareness, which crossed ethnic divisions. Traditional African religions fulfill for the Kirdi an important function of integrating and sanctioning the organization of societies based on blood ties, as well as societies based on inhabited territory. The significance of these religions stems also from the particular role that religion plays in general in a culture, permeating its various segments. In Kirdi cultures its role was notably confined to the boundaries set by the concrete tribal society and village. Systematic evangelization among the Kirdi began in November of 1946 with the arrival of 16 French Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate. In less than 70 years of work these missionaries accomplished great evangelical endeavors in an area encompassing almost 1/3 of the entire territory of Cameroon. Their work included not only proclaiming the Gospel, but also aiding the development of the Kirdi. Evangelization and the aiding of development are two aspects of the one mission of the Church. The two complete and permeate each other. The road to salvation passes through this world, through its conditions, societal life, its economic structures, and so on. The pastoral constitution on the Church in the modern world of Vatican II, Gaudium et Spes, speaks many times of “human promotion,” and “progress,” emphasizing that the term “human promotion” is a concept broader than a “progress” generally understood as technological, economic, or a raising of the standard of living, improving the overall human condition. (GS, n. 35). Aid to development was given much space in the Decree on mission- �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 141 ary activity, Ad Gentes. We read in it, for example, “Just as Christ, then, went about all the towns and villages, curing every kind of disease and infirmity as a sign that the kingdom of God had come, so also the Church, through her children, is one with men of every condition, but especially with the poor and the afflicted. For them, she gladly spends and is spent [...] Let Christians labor and collaborate with others in rightly regulating the affairs of social and economic life.” (AG, n. 12) The beginning initiatives for aiding development were undertaken by the missionaries on the grounds of their missionary stations. They included various aspects of farm life as well as attention to schooling and health care. As time went on and Church structures developed, diocesan structures also took on aid in development. The first Comité Diocésain de Développement (CDD-Diocesan Development Committee) came into existence in the Diocese of Maroua-Mokolo (1976). In 1980 a similar development committee was established in the Archdiocese of Garoua. In the Dioceses of Ngaoundéré and Yagoua CODAS-CARITAS (Comité Diocésain des Activités Socio-Caritatives) was brought into being, whose task it was to be concerned in material and social development, as well as in spreading the social teachings of the Church, and in charitable activities. Animating villages and Agricultural Training Centers Missionary animation of farming also began in northern Cameroon in the 1960’s. It did not however have a broad or formal nature. In the beginning, the best-known initiative was the work of Fr. Louis Chauvat of the Fignolé mission in the Archdiocese of Garoua, where he established the Center for Agricultural Formation. This Center not only equipped people with the newest methods for cultivation but also taught them how to use new agricultural tools, that is, mainly, the plow and coulter. It also fostered the use of draft animal power �142 Jarosław Różański OMI and with time brought the first tractors to the northern part of the country. In 1963 a missionary from Fignolé was named a member of the Council for Development for the North Province [known as North Region as of 2008] and invited to develop a five-year economic plan for that region1. Similar, although on a smaller scale, initiatives were conducted in missions at, among others, Touboro, Djinglia, Djohong and Karna. An Agricultural Center was established in Touboro in 1965. Lay missionary Dominique Fichot worked there for the first three years of its existence. The main task of the center was to spread new cultivation and new farming techniques among the inhabitants of the surrounding villages, as well as educating the local farmers in self-sufficiency. A whole village founded in Djinglia as a model of increased effectiveness in local farming through the use of new techniques and cultivation2. Fr. Louis Blaire led a similar undertaking among the Mafa3. Besides the organizing of agricultural education centers, what also played a major role in the animation of villages was short-term schooling, exam sessions, and meetings conducted by members of the Christian communities or by animators trained for the purpose. In the schooling and exams emphasis is usually placed not on big development projects but on a change in mentality through slow changes in everyday life and habits. For example, it would be proposed that windows be put into the walls of a house, and the door enlarged, that the walls be plastered, the kitchen partitioned 1 Cf. E. de Loizy, La maison Rurale de Fignolé, un exemple de formation d’exploitations agricoles, Nord Cameroun, Agi-Service-Afrique (1968) nr 3, pp. 12–17. 2 Cf. J. Boisseau, Quand on implante une mission dans un milieu humain, Missions OMI (1970) vol. 332, pp. 125–134; L. Blaire, Equipes rurales, Pôle et Tropiques (1964) nr 7–8, pp. 184–185; P.H. Doublier, En équipe avez Dourous pour la promotion du village, Pôle et Tropiques (1974) nr 7–8, pp. 174–184. 3 Cf. L. Blaire, Equipes rurales, op. cit.., pp. 184–185. �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 143 off into its own separate room, that care be taken of household equipment such as kerosene. In regards to work in the fields: to use oxen, to do the sowing in long straight lines, to plant fruit trees, to grow vegetables. Guidelines were also given regarding children, the relationship between husband and wife, activities on the level of the territorial community, etc.4 Similar simple directives and guidelines were published in local animators textbooks, brochures, and periodicals dedicated to development5. Improvement of living conditions and development level An important element of training was the obtaining of skills for farm-management and cash turnover. Not knowing how to use money, together with its attractiveness, was causing many farmers to sell their products immediately after the harvest, for very low prices, only to then buy them back in the leaner periods between harvests, for much higher prices. This is a neglect of the past custom of storing reserves in granaries and at the same time a falling into perpetual debt. It had a negative effect on the life of the whole family, sinking it into ever-deepening poverty. Therefore Cf. meeting dedicated to the problem of village development in Mokolo, November 1972 r.: Evagélisation et développement, [MS Maroua, publication date not given]. 5 In the development bulletin En Avant, published in Maroua in so-called „simplified French,” various types of procedures and questions connected with farm and societal life are clarified. Some examples: information on the conditions and circumstances for making a new ID card (April 2001), weeding crops (June 2001), raising sheep and goats (May 2001), conditions for registering to vote (January 2001), planting garlic (December 2000), innoculating goats (September 2000), basic information about cholera (August 2000), feed for two donkeys (August 1999), chicken coops and raising chickens (April 1999). 4 �144 Jarosław Różański OMI there was training in foreseeing costs and in keeping a ledger of income and expenses. Another big problem was the lack of insurance in case of drought, fire, accident, or illness. As a rule, children as well as youth remained outside of all stipend or scholarship systems. For this reason many missions also began to practice the cultivation of so-called „Christian community fields”, the income of which served as their own insurance fund as well as being a source from which the community drew for operational costs6. Another form of rational money management was putting it into a common fund and then attaching it to the mission’s account. The mission account was then connected to the diocese’s account in the national bank where it would be possible to earn greater interest. Separate, subjective accounts, even for individuals, were set up in the villages; they existed only in the ledgers of those responsible for them. This taught individual saving and rational money management. An idea known as Savings-Credit Clubs (CEC – Club d’Épargne et de Crédit) also spread in many villages in the diocese of MarouaMokolo. It spread the practice of saving in accounts set up in banks. The zone of what is called the Sudan Climate, and most of all the Sahelu zone, is a region given to drought and consequently to famine or malnutrition. That this area is undergoing desertification is born witness to by the fact that the Sahara Desert is increasing by A pioneer of this system was Fr. Franciszek Chrószcz, who founded the Guider mission in the Koina sector, an experimental agricultural cooperative. The Christian community received fields for cultivation. Qualifying grain and farming equipment were purchased which caused a significant increase in yield per hectare. Everyone worked in the community field. Cf. A. Kurek, O. Franciszek Chrószcz OMI, Niepokalana (1977) nr 3, p. 92. At the Lam mission, where the present author did his missionary training from 1991–1993, there existed seven „co-op farms” of this type. They were located in the villages of Lam, Dahal, Kongkong, Djiougi, Mbrousum, Bali and Badia. 6 �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 145 about 1.5 million hectares per year. The noticeable lack of water, especially in the dry season, was the cause of many diseases, and more than once, also of migrations. In order to obtain healthy water missionaries collected funds for digging wells and also taught the technique for this to the local peoples. The missions run by the Polish Oblates in the Guider area became known, among others, for this kind of activity; using traditional methods they dug, or drilled into rock, about 150 wells. In the Diocese of Maroua-Mokolo in 1995 the Diocesan Committee for Development established a legally recognized association for the purpose of building wells and canals (GOIP – Groupe des Organismes Intervenants dans les Puits et les Biefs), made up of specialists trained in building wells and canals. Improved living conditions in the mountains of Mandara became also a goal of the Mandara Mountains Regional Development Project (PDRM – Projet de Développement de la Région des Monts Mandara), financed by the European Union. The Project was implemented in 1996. It anticipated the building of schools, granaries, wells, and canals7. Afforestation initiatives were promoted and conducted by a good number of missions as another attempt against the desertification of the Sahelu area. These were developed especially in the territories of the Dioceses of Pala, of Maroua-Mokolo, and the Archdiocese of Garoua. The cultivation of sorghum improved living conditions; it is known as berbéré in Chad and in northern Cameroon as muskuwari. Cf. L. Robin, Du pain sur la planche et de l’eau dans le puits, Pôle et Tropiques (1982) nr 5, pp. 103–104; J. Lavoie, O. Filion, P. Marcheterre, Echos du Cameroun, Pôle et Tropiques (1986) nr 7–8, p. 117; Y. Schaller, Problèmes d’eau, Pôle et Tropiques (1990) nr 7–8, pp. 20–21; B. Noyer, Un peuple se leve Pôle et Tropiques (1997) nr 3, p. 15. This initiative also found an echo in a campaign organized by the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology and the Poznan division of the Polish African Society under the title of Woda i zadrzewianie strefy Sahelu – Water and Refforestation for Sahel – WARS. Dr hab. Ryszard Vorbrich coordinated this campaign. 7 �146 Jarosław Różański OMI It is sown in clayish soil recovered with the floods of SeptemberOctober, when the clay held a sufficient amount of water after the dry season. Seedbeds are installed. Seedlings are transplanted after 30–40 days in holes made with sticks and are watered. The harvest would take place in December or January8. Mission hospitals, health-care centers, and pharmacies When the first Missionary Oblates arrived in northern Cameroon in 1947, there was no organized medical care at all in the whole vast region9. The situation improved somewhat during the 1950’s. Besides taking into consideration a house for the missionary, the building projects for the majority of missions also included a church, school, home for religious sisters, and buildings set aside for a mission health-care center. In the year 1970 there were existing in northern Cameroon 32 Catholic health-care centers; in the year 2000 there were 41 of them. An example that witnesses to the significance and influence of local Church health-care and its influence in changing mentalities is the transformation of one of the better – known hospitals, founded in 1959 by Swiss Dr. Maggi in the village of Tokombéré in the Mandara Mountains. Today it has 120 beds. Working there are one doctor and 15 nurses as well as visiting specialist doctors. Since every year saw an increase in illnesses and deaths due to epidemics, significant changes were made in modes of action and the „Center for Health Promotion” was built next to the hospital. Its purpose was to reach out beyond the hospital walls to the vil8 A full description of cultivation methods and terrain in: Ch. Raimond, Évolution des terres repiquées en sorgho au sud du lac Tchad (Tchad). Mémoire de DEA, Paris 1993. 9 Cf. Y. Plumey, Mission Tchad-Cameroun. Documents, souvenirs, visages. L’annonce de l’Evangile au Nord-Cameroun et au Mayo Kebbi 1946–1986, Rome 1990, p. 513; J. Boisseau, Quand on implante une mission dans un milieu humain, Missions OMI (1970) t. 332, pp. 125–134, p. 128. �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 147 lages, and there form people and train them how to fight the most widespread, basic diseases which, it had been confirmed, in about 60% of cases can be treated on-site, without need for hospitalization. Every year different awareness campaigns are begun: year of the latrine, year of malaria, year against child mortality, etc. This plan was not formed behind a desk but worked out during meetings and discussions with villagers. It is one of the tasks of the Village Healthcare Committee10. Charitable activities Abject poverty creates a situation unworthy of the human person. Institutionalized government and social forms of aid are not capable of completely preventing it. Therefore today missionary activity is accompanied by the works of mercy. The Vatican II Decree on the apostolate of the laity, Apostolicam Actuositatem, speaks of their necessity, recalling that, „Wherever there are people in need of food and drink, clothing, housing, medicine, employment, education; wherever men lack the facilities necessary for living a truly human life or are afflicted with serious distress or illness or suffer exile or imprisonment, there Christian charity should seek them out and find them, console them with great solicitude, and help them with appropriate relief.” (AA 8) The works of mercy include, among other things: bringing help in time of natural disasters; taking care of poor families, displaced persons, the sick and mentally disturbed, of the mentally and physically handicapped, homeless children, etc. The diocesan development committees were responsible for the works of mercy. At the parish level they were most often attended Cf. Ch. Aurenche, H. Vulliez, Tokombéré, au pays des Grands Prêtres. Religions africaines et Évangile peuvent-ils inventer l’avenir?, Paris 1996, op.cit., pp. 68–70. 10 �148 Jarosław Różański OMI to by specialized groups of lay people, sometimes associated with a movement set up for one of the works of mercy, as for example the Hearth of Charity (Foyer de Charité), or the Association of Women of Mercy. Although the phenomenon of abandoned orphans had been virtually unknown in traditional societies in this part of Africa, contact with the European economic system has contributed significantly to the emergence and exacerbation of this phenomenon, particularly in the big cities. One of the first orphanage-boarding schools was founded by Fr. Alexis Atangana OMI in Guider in 1958. In Figuil and Mandama orphanages and boarding schools for girls were founded by the Polish Sister Servants of Mary Most Holy. A new phenomenon which came much into focus in the 1990’s is that of „street children,” deprived of family, home, education, and means of support. They begin their day by begging11, rummaging through garbage, performing small services or petty trade. At the end of the day they go to sleep on sidewalks, vestibules, under the marketplace roofs, or in abandoned cars. It is estimated that in Garoua, northern Cameroon, about 35% of children are to a greater or lesser degree, „street children.” The majority of them come from the nothern provinces of Cameroon (about 85%), 6% from Chad, 4.5%, from Nigeria, 2–3% from southern Cameroon, and 2% of unknown origin12. By the year 1987 in Garoua the Center for Social-Sanitary Promotion (CPSS) had been begun and was working with the Diocese of Milan’s Centro Orientamento Educativo. The Center’s work concentrated It is sometimes difficult to distinguish these children from the pupils of the Koran schools, who beg for the expenses of their teachers. This is a permanent element of their extracurricular activities. 12 Cf. M. Zeitcheu, Les enjeux de la nouvelle évangélisation dans l’archidiocèse de Garoua. Mémoire de fin de cycle de theologie, [MS] Maroua 2000, pp. 24–26. 11 �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 149 on the most neglected social environments, providing them with, among other things, a doctor’s clinic in Garoua, a Youth Center, and a program called „Street Children.” In 1997 in Garoua was opened the Piccola Casa for „street children” which is a project of Italian missionaries. Such children are also included in care in Maroua. Another group of people in need was immigrants. One reason for migration was war in Chad and the Sudan. Refugees from Chad sought refuge in the territories of Cameroon and the Central African Republic. The best-known wave of refugees appeared in the end of the 1970’s in the Cameroon town of Kousseri, situated across from Ndżameny. It is estimated that between 80–100.000 exiles sought refuge in Kousseri at that time. The missions also took care of migrants in whom could be seen a lack of stability and a conviction that they would not be settling in the new territory „forever” but only temporarily. They were prepared at all times to change villages. They also had a feeling of „foreignness,” seeing themselves as aliens. Connected with this was negligence in self-development, wasting money, and a lack of solidarity. It was very difficult to form a community with migrants arriving from various regions because of language, customs, and so on. Missionary work and aid for development among migrants was undertaken first of all by missionaries in Bibémi, Lagdo, Ngong, Pitoa, Tcholliré, Madingrin and Touboro. The tragic situation of sanitation in African prisons was the reason not only for organizing a dynamic prison ministry but also an extensive nutritional and medical aid plan. Prisoners are under guard in, among others, prisons in northern Cameroon and prisons at Garoua and Tcholliré where prisoners under sentence of death are sent. In the Tcholliré prison Polish male and female missionaries undertake ministry and humanitarian activity, along with lay co-workers. �150 Jarosław Różański OMI Reputable Catholic schools In establishing Catholic schools much emphasis was placed on general-education schools. However, due to lack of trade schools, missionaries were concerned with setting up schools of this type as well as with other forms of training craftsmen. They also developed original teaching forms and literacy programs for local village populations. The best-known secondary school in northern Cameroon was the de Mazenod College in Ngaoundéré – the first secondary school in that part of the country. Bishop Yves Plumey invited the Christian Brothers of Canada to conduct this College. Among the state secondary schools to be found in northern Cameroon, for a long time there was not one trade school or center for apprenticeship. For this reason it was an unusually valuable initiative when in 1969 the Oblates founded in Meignanga the Paul VI Center for Technical Training13, where auto mechanics could be trained. In 1992, 52 pupils were studying at the school. In 1991 in Garoua, at the initiative of Christiana Tumi, the Saint Therese College was opened. An original initiative was undertaken in the year 2000 in Maroua, when the Jacques de Bernon College was established. In its founding the college undertook the formation of youth in both the humanities and in technical courses, encouraging in this way the creating of small and medium-sized businesses. In this the school was open most of all to youth coming from poorer areas, mainly the Mandara Mountains. A separate chapter in mission teaching is informal, out-of-school, teaching. This includes for example the training of craftsmen by religious brothers. The fast pace of the development of the missions, The school later changed its name to Le Collège d’Enseignement Technique Industriel Paul VI. It goes everywhere by the abbreviation CETIP. 13 �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 151 Catholic schools, clinics, etc., demanded numerous buildings and this in turn was connected to a need for a professional labor force. The buildings were most often produced by religious brothers. Their full, dedicated work had in this way an aspect at once formational and instructional. Almost everyone had local co-workers whom they were training, making for a practical professional school. The Africans working with them changed often, so that the percent of people trained in the profession was considerable. It was similar for the workshops of auto mechanics and carpenters existing near the missions, where religious brothers taught the local youth. The best-known „school” of this type was the workshop at the Maroua mission, which was run in the beginning by Br. Pierre Petard, and after him by Br. Garbriel Tessier. Br. Gabriel Tessier was honored by the Premier of Cameroon for his education work14. Another similar initiative also developing in the 1970’s and 80’s in northern Cameroon and Chad was known as „school under the trees.” Classes were held in various places, depending on need. Theory was usually taught under a tree, and practice lessons in the fields, in the garden, by the well, and so on. It was a school of teaching the basics of farming, effective cultivation, hygiene, but also counting and often reading and writing as well15. Many youth ministry centers filled to a great degree a teaching aid function, even if only by creating a library and providing a room with electricity. 14 Cf. N. Leca, L’école d’apprentissage de Maroua, interview de frère Gabriel Tessier, Pôle et Tropiques (1958) nr 8–9, pp. 20–22; Promotion de l’homme par le changement de metier, [w:] Devant les aspirations des hommes que nous rencontrons, les chrétiens s’interrogent. Stage de Pastorale, Sarh (Tchad) 24 juin–10 juillet 1975, [Sarh 1975], pp. 24–28. 15 Cf. O. Arnaude, M.L. Merceron, Mindjil, un village en pays Moundang qui bouge, Pôle et Tropiques (1979) nr 7–8, pp. 189–190; L. Blaire, Ecole de brousse en pays M’Boum, Pôle et Tropiques (1949) nr 12, p. 159. �152 Jarosław Różański OMI Linguistic work and appreciation of local culture Evangelization demands knowledge of local languages. As arule not only evangelization progress but also the survival and development of a culture depended on the introduction of an alphabet, codification of rules of grammar, and publishing in the given language. When missionaries began their work in the mid-twentieth century the local languages did not have a written form or standard rules of grammar. Work on the local languages was decidedly hampered by the lack of preparation in linguistics in the missionaries. But numerous unpublished dictionaries and grammars quickly began to appear. Among these were also to be found limited editions of grammar books for the Gidar language, compiled by Polish missionary W. Kozioła and local teacher J. Maingle16. Also published were a grammar and dictionary of Gbaya as well as grammatical elements of Uldeme17. An unquestionably noteworthy linguistic achievement is the work of Dominique Noye on the Fulfulde language, which filled the role of a vehicular language18. A greatly richer set of publications in local languages are translated works. Most often they were done locally on duplicating machines. Editions were done in the languages of, among others, Matakam, Podokwo, Kapsiki, Mafa, Mofu, Gisiga, Bana, Djimi, Uldeme, Mada, Daba, Gidar, Tupuri, Namtchi, Pere, Gbaya, Mbum, Massa, Ngambay, Sar, Mbai. For Christian liturgies, and especially para-liturgies, many local symbolic elements were imported when Judeo-Christian W. Kozioł, J. Maingle, Grammaire guidar, Figuil 1993. P. Bodénés, Grammaire Gbaya élémentaire, [MS] Meiganga 1954; Y. Blanchard, Ph. Noss, Dictionnaire gbaya-francais: dialecte yaayuwee, Meiganga 1982; D.P. Provoost, S.P. Koulifa, Essai sur la langue uldeme, Tervuren 1987. 18 D. Noyé, Dialecte peul du Diamaré, Paris 1974; ibid., Dictionnaire FoulfouldéFrançais (dialecte peul du Diamaré, Nord-Cameroun), Paris 1989. 16 17 �MISSIONS IN NORTHERN CAMEROON AND DEVELOPMENT... 153 or European Christian symbolism would be poorly understood or even intelligible. Along with the expansion of Christianity came also the spread of indigenous Christian creativity. It used a wealth of local dance and song, singing accompanied by various types of instruments. These songs, at first copied singly or a few at a time, were memorized, and with time popularized in various songbooks. Alongside translated works and indigenous Christian creativity is also education in reading and writing in these languages. As J.M.Ela stated, „an illiterate African is not necessarily one who does not know French or English, but above all one who is not able to express himself orally or in writing in his own language”19. In the Diocese of Maroua-Mokolo, particularly in the Mandara Mountains, missionaries organized 25-person groups of youth aged 14–26 to meet during the dry season, from January to April, four times per week, for four hours each meeting. There was provision for a very thorough, three-year training in literacy. They also set up so-called „local language committees” which endeavored to develop an alphabet for the language and produce rules for writing it. These committees co-operated with the National Association of Language Committees in Cameroon (ANACLAC – Association Nationale des Comités de Langues au Cameroun). In 1988 a legally recognized association emerged from these committees, acting on behalf of the local languages and human promotion through literacy (ALPHA – Association pour les Langues et la Promotion Humaine par l’Alphabetisation). Appreciation of local culture began to clearly change the consciousness of the younger generation which as a rule is fascinated with new things coming from the outside world. Even among youth attending school and recent graduates, an increasing awareness grew that to speak French or English, and not to know one’s 19 J.M. Ela, La plume et la pioche, Yaoundé 1971, p. 14. �154 Jarosław Różański OMI own language, is another form of illiteracy. In many places there was a renewed discovering of, and getting to know, tradition. An example of this can be the Youth Home in Tokombéré in the Mandara Mountains. In 1990 the Baba Simon College was added to the mission with the help of parents and of young people, and the settlement around it managed and kept up by youth who in that way learned self-organization, mutual aid, and working to maintain oneself. The „Sare Youth” of Tokombéré have their own library and video-library. The youth have been inflamed with, for example, an interest in their own culture, that is, the culture of various ethnic groups. They have begun collecting proverbs, folk tales, sayings, histories of particular tribes, and traditional religions....first in the Mujang language, and later other languages as well. This experiment proved so successful that the pupils of Tokombéré continued it at the university in Yaoundé, the youth coming from the Mandara Mountains concentrating on similar guidelines for communal life and working together20. There are many studies of a popular rather than scientific nature. In publications in French21, German22, and Polish23, missionaries repeatedly presented various aspects of the local cultures, popularizing them among European readers. It is not possible here to overlook the papers and theses written by indigenous clerics in the major seminaries of Maroua, Bakara, Sarh, and Bangi. Many of them take on the attempt to describe various aspects of local culture. 20 Cf. Ch. Aurenche, H. Vulliez, Tokombéré, au pays des Grands Prêtres. Religions africaines et Évangile peuvent-ils inventer l’avenir?, op. cit., pp. 87–94. Published on the initiative of youth in.: Vingt contes des Monts Mandaras, Nord Cameroun, Champigny-sur-Marne 2000. 21 Mainly Pôle et Tropiques. 22 Der Weiberg; Immaculata. 23 Mainly Misyjne Drogi. �Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski The potential role of foreign capital in development of Sub-Saharan Africa Abstract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is mostly channeled by leading economies and is located in arising economies (China, Latin American states, Eastern Europe). Sub-Saharan Africa made an exception to this trend recently. It is a subject of FDI interest from China and India as well as from some advanced economies. In case of FDI from other arising economies (like East European ones), in SSA the situation is, however, different. First, the scale of an action is limited. Even so, the competitiveness of FDI is worth considering. Arising economies offer cheaper projects due to less expensive staff, and next, they are closer to substantial sectors of economy. This is why their potential role in supporting the level of life in benefiting countries seems to be important. They encourage cooperation with small scale sector, which offers services and outsourcing activities. One may call this phenomenon indirect local development. Another problem deals with sustainable development. An institutional support seems to be essential for achievRyszard Piasecki – Professor, PhD in economics, University of Lodz; former Consul General of Poland in Brazil and Polish Ambassador in Chile; author of numerous publications on globalization, economic development and European Union identity and integration process. Janusz Gudowski – Professor, PhD in economics, Technical University of Warsaw and Copper Region Vocational College in Lublin, author of numerous papers on development and rural development. �156 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski ing expected effects (as it is seen now in European Union), while its lack may postpone it. Key words: foreign direct investments; arising economies; Sub-Saharan Africa Introduction Less advanced economies were the hosts of foreign direct investment (FDI) for quite a long period. At the beginning it was overwhelmed by investments by multi-nationals, mostly in China, due to its cheap labor resources and vast internal market. In the course of time that activity extended to other countries and other companies. The late phenomenon is an increasing investment activity from the emerging economies of the middle-income countries. In case of Poland there is an important direct investment completed recently in copper industry in Chile, as well as some less successful investments in Sub-Saharan Africa, in China and India. Due to the investments in less competitive branches and due to the lower costs, FDI from emerging economies is likely to occur on much larger scale in the coming years. Determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) in less developed economies by the companies coming from arising economies From the past experience of FDI by multinational enterprises in the poorer countries in transition the following conclusions can be drawn: 1) Multinational enterprises (MEs) can be a very important source of capital, technology and skill training. It is well known fact that the countries in transition consider the MEs as one of the main vehicles to achieve the transformation of the productive �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 157 capabilities in their economies. However, the task to attract them is not easy. 2) MEs are selective in their areas of entry: the most important factors are “location specific” attractions to encourage such investments (resource attractions or market opportunities). Low wages do not necessarily attract labour-intensive investment activities. While cheap labour and cheap qualified manpower may attract offshore production activities, the real determinant is the unexploited potential of the home markets of these countries. In fact, labour costs in all these countries are very low, but this is not a decisive factor in location and nor are tax breaks and special incentives. Investment has to be attractive itself. Usually the main motive is the market potential and the importance of getting a stake in that market. So, it explains why the macroeconomic stability and low wages are not in themselves a sufficient attraction to foreign capital. 3) The importance of the “institutional framework” of markets (e.g. property rights, banks, specialist suppliers etc.) should not be ignored. 4) The presence of highly trained technical manpower will not in itself attract high tech businesses, but may attract offshore processing activities (e.g. software) 5) The key determinant of the FDI of multinational firms in the long run is the growth of their home markets. (a) Poverty as an obstacle to FDI The problems of less developed economies are very complex and much linked to the poverty, which has a very serious impact on the economic situation of these countries. The war on poverty is not a struggle simply to support people, to make them dependent on generosity of others. It is a struggle to give people a chance. It is an effort to allow them to develop and use their capacities. �158 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski In advanced economies public policy toward poverty has always been plagued by a persistent dilemma. Should we provide poor people with enough income to buy “adequate” nutrition, housing and clothing? Or should we instead provide them with improved opportunities to earn their own incomes? In other words, should we offer welfare or work to low-income families? The answer is not easy because the two policy options often conflict. Generally speaking, the availability of welfare benefits reduces the need to work. To be counted as a poor, an individual or family must be unable to provide for the essential needs of food, shelter and clothing according to standards of a given country. Naturally, it is not going to be universal agreement about how little is not enough. There is empirical evidence that the market mechanism and economic liberalism are the most effective ways to improve productivity and competitiveness of a given country. They help to achieve higher economic growth and economic development. Better economic development means less poverty. In the market economy the state has a very important task to fulfill – the distributional function. The state can use the following instruments: 1) Fiscal system (taxes, tax reductions and so on) 2) Public spending (health care, education, „welfare benefits” etc.) 3) Intervention through the price mechanism (it is rather negative from the point of view of effective allocation of resources): – the policy of minimal wages – the control of house rents etc. – food price subsidies Encouraging poor people to work is a generally acceptable policy option (but the price of work factor cannot be undervalued as it used to happen in non-market economies). There are limits, however, to the effectiveness of this approach. Many poor people are too old or sick to participate in the labour market. It is true that even labour – force participants remain poor because of their �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 159 inadequate human capital (it is the bundle of skills and abilities that a person carries into the labour market). Obviously, any kind of discrimination can preclude full use of human capital. Race, sex and class discrimination could have significant impact on both the distribution and the extent of poverty. The most effective way to attack poverty is to attack unemployment, not the symptoms of it. So, what should be done? It seems that the most important tasks are: developing human capital, training programs, dismantling discrimination barriers and improving the flow of information about job vacancies and work opportunities. Can FDI from highly developed countries fulfill this function? For some observers, the provision of education, training, and even jobs seems to be too expensive and too uncertain, and entails too much government intervention. What about „welfare benefits”? Welfare benefits can help a lot the poor people but they can also perpetuate dependence (in the USA there are whole generations of „welfare” people especially in black districts), since they do not increase human capital and job opportunities. Welfare benefits can even worsen the poverty problem by discouraging recipients from working. In developing countries, and especially in Africa, the problem is more complex. The common denominator of all these countries is low income. Even in rich DCs important segments of the population live in extreme poverty. Statistics of per capita income are a fundamental measure of a country’s economic development, but the reality of these countries is reflected in statistics on life expectancy, literacy and social conditions (like lack of food, health care, safe water etc.). There are many serious barriers to the economic growth in Africa: 1) Growing population with relatively little fertile land and capital available (high fertility rates and too large families) 2) Wide-spread open and disguised unemployment �160 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski 3) Severe shortages of skilled labour and managers 4) Lack of capital resources (and not enough local savings) Poor African nations are chronically short of skilled labour, management, capital and technology. External financing is usually required. Foreign investment, loans and aid are all sources of vital external financing. So, introducing market reforms, opening up economies, inviting foreign direct investment and foreign aid (in the field of technology, education and so on) can significantly reduce the poverty of a given country. \ (b) What FDI and from where? The crucial question is what kind of FDI and from which countries? The presence of Chinese companies is understandable because they seem to be best adapted to the African conditions. Chinese companies understand poverty very well and they are highly experienced in small scale businesses and appropriate technologies. Here is the huge opportunity for the FDI from emerging countries. What motivates a company to go beyond exporting or licensing? What benefits does the multinational enterprise expect to achieve by establishing a physical productive subsidiary in other countries? These are the questions that the theory of foreign direct investment has sought to answer for decades. As with trade theory, the questions have remained largely the same over time while the answers have changed. With hundreds of countries, thousands of companies, and millions of products and services, there is no doubt that the answer to such an enormous question will satisfy everybody. The theme is a global business environment that continues to attempt to satisfy increasingly sophisticated consumer demands, while the means of production, resources, skills, and technology needed to become more complex and competitive. There is no question that much of the initial FDI was the result of firms seeking valuable natural resources for their products. The twentieth century has �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 161 the expansion of this activity combined with a number of other objectives sought by multinationals. The resources needed for production are often combined with other advantages that may be inherent in the FDI receiving country. What is used as the source of international competitiveness in labour-intensive products according to factor proportions trade theory provides incentives for firms to move production to countries possessing those factor advantages. And, consistent with the principles of Vernon’s product cycle, the same companies may move their own production to locations of factor advantages as the products and markets mature. Companies may attempt to acquire firms in other countries for the technical or competitive skills. Finally, firms may seek markets. The ability to gain access to markets is a key to multinational firms. The need to grow beyond the domestic market is central to all of global trade and business theory. As governments have become more intertwined in the business affairs of their constituents, multinational firms have often been forced to position themselves against the potential loss of market access by establishing permanent physical presence. The reaction of North American and East Asian firms to the single European market pushed forward in 2002 was to increase their level of investment in the European Union to ensure that they would not fall victim of the protectionism. So far, theoretical interest in the FDI, service and trade expansion to less developed economies exhibit the role of business potentates, or large international corporations as well as large-scale capital. Approach to this issue has significantly changed over the past decades, from the criticism aimed at the root element of ideology (in Poland in the 1970-s it was called “neo-colonialism”), to praise the new manifestations of economic freedom (FDI in countries adjusting to the requirements of market economy), interspersed with statements about the long-term benefits of globalization, where multinational companies play a fundamental role. �162 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski The theory of FDI has so far paid only limited attention to multinational companies coming from the emerging markets (e.g. Poland, Brazil, Chile) to other less developed countries (including the poorest African countries). Only to some extent the theory dealt with an issue of a great importance for medium developed economy, namely whether – and in what areas the capital coming from the very economy may invest in underdeveloped markets? This lack was mostly due to a small amount of this type of companies coming from medium developed countries. Only the increasing amount of direct investment from such countries as Brazil, Chile, Mexico, China, India, etc. caused that scientists began to closely examine the determinants of FDI from these countries. The most recent example of this type is a huge direct investment of the Polish company KGHM in Chile (4 billion USD) and ORLEN in Lithuania. This lack in theoretical literature is especially visible today, when a completely new phenomenon appeared: significant amount of FDI from emerging economies is invested in less developed countries. In Poland, the first complex study on the activities of Polish companies investing abroad was conducted in 2004 at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń [Karaszewski, 2013]. The authors showed that in the period 2008–2012 Polish FDI doubled. Growing investments of Polish companies encourage the need for further research in this area. Traditional theory of FDI assumed that crucial element for this type of investments is to achieve by the company competitive advantage that will provide long-term benefits. This type of investment enables the control over the manufacturing and sale of products or services of a relatively innovative nature. In case of manufacturing, the aim of FDI was to secure a stable and cheap supply of raw materials for production processes. However, today, when completely new forms of production are being developed (e.g. sub-contracts, manufacturing products of the highest technological generation in �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 163 poor countries) the theory of foreign direct investment should be further modified. FDI became a method of increasing the effectiveness of capital and the companies’ value. In the era of globalization, this does not apply only to capital coming from the richest countries. Trends in FDI coming to Sub-Saharan Africa According to J. H. Dunning, there is a relationship between the level of economic development and the volume of FDI [J.H. Dunning 2002]. It is evaluated by the so called NOI parameter, which means net outward/outflow investment per capita compared to the level of invested funds. Dunning recognized four stages of economic advancement due to the level of NOI. African states which are attractive to foreign capital represent the 2nd stage, where NOI per capita is much less 0 due to the heavy inflow of FDI and no outflow of domestic capital. Foreign investment has a long story in independent Africa. Soon after nationalization in many new independent states has been completed, the lack of foreign capital assistance was revealed. It was mostly in the 1970-s when multinationals started to penetrate Africa. It was the era of the Cold War, so the Eastern Block blamed this action as neocolonial dominance over less developed economies. Other developing countries did not stay lazy. Thus, an open door policy was implemented by a number of less developed states. It aimed at advancing of abandoned areas, reducing unemployment, etc. Implementing IMF adjustment programs in the 1980-s and later made a number of African countries attractive as potential clients to external capital. Today, most of less advanced economies, especially those with stabilized political situation, are the host countries to FDI. Current international opinion is very enthusiastic about the chances of FDI in Sub-Saharan Africa. The reason is that a number of African countries got high economic growth in recent years. Some �164 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski of them are even the leaders of the fast growth. This is the case of some the least developed economies in the world like Mozambique, Ethiopia and Zambia. Other African countries with a very high economic growth in recent years are: Tanzania, Congo and Nigeria. Surely, high international prices of copper, gold and coal played an important role in case of African exporters, but the list is longer. Processed goods as well as services started to be much more visible in African export. As a result, some indicators of the level of social development like extent of poverty, food consumption or enrollment to schools have been improved. Some opinions also say that the middle class extends in some African states and growing salaries push the demand up. Is it an impulse to local producers and suppliers? It is a very good question since experience of other countries proves that this kind of demand increase is mostly directed to imported goods. There are three possible ways to encourage FDI to the host country. The first one is to enable the purchase of an existing company, which is called brownfield investment. Usually this action is done either after an announcement by the host government the offer to sell a public company, or on the stock exchange. It mostly deals with some large scale public companies that may be restructured and improved due to FDI. The next possible way to FDI is creating a new company just from the grass root level, which is called greenfield investment. Greenfield investments are often met in case of mining with associated processing and mostly represent large scale FDI. The last way to FDI is relevant for a medium scale FDI as well, but even then it requires good experience in international cooperation as well as some support from the country sender. This is making joint venture with the partner from benefiting country. There are two main obstacles to FDI in case of Sub-Saharan Africa. One is political turmoil while the other is natural disaster, �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 165 like long-lasting draught or Ebola epidemics. Both are or were mostly faced in West Africa in recent years. Interesting is that “traditional” say barriers, like political system, corruption risk, etc. are not often met in international press, as it used to be. Did the situation improve or perhaps foreign investors stopped bothering about it – is a good question. In 2010–2013 the top recipients of FDI in Sub-Saharan Africa were Nigeria, Mozambique, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo and Ghana, with yearly inflow of FDI between 1 to 9 billion US $. However, one may observe irregular inflow dropping visibly or suddenly growing in subsequent year. For example, Ebola risk slowed down FDI in West Africa, including one of the Polish leading FDI in mining and fertilizers’ manufacturing. Political events in Nigeria decreased FDI, as well. On the contrary, Central Africa maintained good trends in FDI, based mostly on copper-cobalt deposits in Congo. East Africa proves the same trend due to FDI in Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda, while South Africa reveals heavy drop in FDI for a couple of years after 2010 [World Investment Report 2013]. Nearly half of all FDI coming to Africa (the whole continent) in 2014 is to be concentrated in few recipients (Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa), as “The Wall Street Journal” informed on May, 19, 2014. The top investing countries are U.S., the U.K. and France, which represents more than 50% of FDI value in particular years. The others are China followed by Brazil, Russia and India. Polish investments in Sub-Saharan Africa Poland is one of bigger European economies (considering overall GDP), preceded only by Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, Holland and Sweden. Polish achievements, first in adjusting economy to the requirements of market economy, next in fulfilling EU requirements, are highly appreciated. Furthermore, it came �166 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski over last economic crisis in the world quite successfully, keeping relatively high economic growth, though situation in some areas, especially if underemployment and increasing income disparities are considered, cannot satisfy? For the last two decades Poland was one of the biggest European beneficiaries of foreign direct investments. New situation appeared after Polish companies started to be visible abroad. The biggest Polish foreign investments (greenfield investments plus joint venture) were so far situated in Lithuania (energy sector) and only recently in Chile Republic (copper industry). These two deals engaged together around 4 billion US $. Even if the overall Polish FDI (including capital investments) is relatively low (estimates by the Polish National Bank say it was only 30 billion Euro, mostly invested in other European economies), increasing activity of the Polish companies abroad is a fact. Furthermore, this trend is politically supported by the highest authorities including the President and the Prime Minister. As a result, the new idea of creating central fund supporting companies to start activities abroad appeared and was implemented at the end of 2014. Polish investments in Sub-Saharan Africa are still low, anyway. According to the National Bank of Poland till the end of 2012 it was a total of 172 million Euros only, which represented merely 0.4% of all Polish FDI. The deals were located mostly in Liberia, Senegal and Angola [National Bank of Poland 2014]. Polish companies represent mostly mining sector (copper, aluminum, coal & petrol) as well as accompanying manufacturing. This list might be easily enlarged by agricultural and food processing sector, machinery and tools, furniture and the others. Polish enterprises are interested in implementing their activities on new markets due to two reasons: – The scale of many potential host markets attracts FDI, especially the internal market grows visibly as well as the growth �The potential role of foreign capital in development... 167 of GDP over there is high (China, Latin American countries, some African countries), – Low costs of labour in host countries makes higher competitiveness of a final product. Conclusions Foreign direct investment is a real chance for less developed economies to break some vulnerabilities of underdevelopment. One may assume, basing on so far experiences that FDI locates mostly in the best or the most promising sectors of economy. Thus, in future, the state control over the very sectors is limited and is granted by the tax inflow plus direct advantages, like an increased employment (decreased unemployment) and higher local demand. FDI, in course of time, influences positively local development of associated services, which again supports budget revenues, employment and the demand. The critics, however, show that national macroeconomic structure may lose an own industry, if any. It might be the temporary phenomenon, however, until the native capital capacities become competitive enough to start its own expansion, perhaps outside the country, too. References Broadman H.G. (2008), China and India go to Africa: New Deal in the Developing World, “Foreign Affairs” no 2. Dunning J.H. (2002), Theories and paradigms of international business activity (vol. I), Edgar Elgar Publ. Ltd, UK. Gudowski J. (2010), Selected topics of socio-economic transformation [in:] A. Bąkiewicz, U. Żuławska (ed.), The development of a globalizing world, PWE, Warsaw. �168 Ryszard Piasecki, Janusz Gudowski Kaplinsky R., mcCormick D., Morris M. (2007), The impact of China on Sub-Saharan Africa, “Working Paper” no 291, IDS Brighton. Karaszewski W. (ed.) (2013), The investment activity of Polish companies abroad – factors and effects, PWE, Warsaw. National Bank of Poland (2014), Polish international investment in 2012, Warsaw. Piasecki R. (ed.) (2011), Economics of development (2nd ed.), PWE, Warsaw. Piasecki T. (2009), Globalization – the European Union – Poland. Poland and European Integration, “Studies and monographs” No. 23, The Academy of Entrepreneurship and Management, Lodz. Piasecki R. (2012), The future of Brazilian megaspace key challenges [in:] P. Artymowska, A. Kuklinski, P. Zuber, Reconfiguration of the Global Scene and the Megaspaces of the XXI Century, Ministry of Regional Development, Warsaw. UNCTAD (2012), World Investment Report 2012. Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies, United Nations, New York – Geneva. UNCTAD (2013/026) Press Release. World Investment Report 2013 (2014), Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development. The World Bank. �Izabella Łęcka Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from the perspective of the Economist Intelligence Unit Education as a chance for the development of the creative sector in Africa Abstract Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play an important role in global economic development mostly because small companies provide majority of employment opportunities worldwide. But nowadays, SMEs are facing the same macroeconomic pressures as bigger businesses, and are struggling to find their niche within a rapidly globalised business environment. They have to think about the world as a whole, and engage a range of clients, suppliers, and contractors in multiple countries to survive if they like to expand internationally. SMEs represent big spectrum of businesses, from financial services to retail. They face a number of obstacles as they plan their international trade strategies, including unreliable infrastructure, prohibitive set-up costs and unstable politics. Economist Intelligence Unit reports are strives to identify the key issues that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) cope with as they expand internationally and to outline how companies have successfully resolved these challenges. They discuss how high growth small and mid-sized enterprises (SMEs) are scaling their organisations to provide resources Izabela Łęcka – Professor. PhD in Geography, Institute for Regional and Global Studies, University of Warsaw. Her research concerns global problems in the contemporary world and medical geography. The areas of interest are North Africa and Middle East. �170 Izabella Łęcka for growth whilst ensuring flexibility to respond quickly to changes in market conditions; the role of technology in scaling SMEs; and success factors in scaling headcount. Most of the information is obtained in Delphi methods which is not a very comfortable source of information in African businesses. It is interesting to analyze some of the key findings from the report in context of African business challenges: 1) The majority of SMEs see international trade as vital for their survival, despite the risks and costs associated with expansion. While 40 percent of respondents currently earned zero revenue from international operations, a clear majority expect to derive between 11 and 50 percent of their revenues internationally in five years’ time. Majority of all respondents agreed that international trade was vital to their survival, with broader client bases and stronger revenue topping the list of trade benefits. 2) Companies see growth opportunities internationally – but the challenges of entering new markets are a bigger concern. 3) The vast majority of SMEs expand into markets that are similar to their own. Given the risks of expansion, most SMEs with international operations have those operations in markets that resemble their own. 4) Tapping into established local networks is a good way to limit the costs of expansion. 5) As far as developing markets go, China is the most attractive whereas Africa is the least alluring. What can we do with such an opinion? Can we identify any solutions? Any indications? Key words: Small and medium enterprises, global economic, African business, Sub-Saharan Africa * * * Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have a crucial role in development of world economy, mainly because small firms ensure the majority of jobs in the whole world. Nowadays, SMEs face the same macroeconomic problems as big companies and have to fight for finding a niche in globalized business envi- �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 171 ronment. They have to treat the world as one entity, and engage number of clients, retailers and workers in many countries if they want to survive and be competitive. SMEs are the big groups of firms, engaging in finance services as well as e.g. selling. Their existence is threatened by a number of problems, including questions about planning international strategy of development (the infrastructure as well), enormous costs of restructuring and lack of stability in the countries, which they want to cooperate with (Scaling SMEs...2013). Reports of the Economist Intelligence Unit describe the key problems, which are faced by SMEs when they try to compete on the global market. The majority of the data has been obtained by the Delphi method, which unfortunately is a complicated tool to be used, nor is it a credible source of information about African enterprises. However, as the development of African entrepreneurship is indispensable, it is interesting to analyze the chosen key conclusions of the report, in the context of business challenges in Africa (Breaking borders...2014): 1. In the opinion of the majority researched SMEs, international trade is important for them to survive, despite risk and costs caused by the expansion. In the situation when 40 percent of respondents calculated their current revenues connected with international activity as zero, the vast majority estimates to obtain 11–50 percent of their income in next 5 years. 2. The majority of SMEs plan the expansion on the markets similar to their own. Taking into consideration a risk related to the expansion, the majority of SMEs think that they have a bigger chance on markets reminding their own. 3. SMEs favor to develop their business in the location with existing infrastructure, especially in telecommunication sector. 4. Good idea to limit the costs of expansion is to use the functioning local network. �172 Izabella Łęcka 5. The most important factors which diversified costs of developing European and American business on the developing markets, despite the corruption level, are the skills and competence of local people. 6. China is the most attractive market of developing countries, while Africa is the least. What should be done with such an opinion? Can we draw any conclusion for expansion of the African business on the international markets? Can Africa adapt ideas from China or other Asian countries, which have undergone an economic boom during the last 20 years? The key condition is high quality of human capital, in the meaning of education and professional qualifications, which have an impact on the creativity of economic sector. Well-educated people are more innovative and open to high technologies and tools used in every-day life. The human capital, better known as human resources, plays an important role in economic development. Human resources are most often understood as the sources of knowledge, skills, health and vital energy existing in every human and society. These sources describe the human ability to work and to adapt to the changes around, as well as to motivate to create new ideas. According to the economists, the human capital is the most important factor to develop technologies, services and innovation. It should be supported by social capital, which is defined as the network of connections and cultural capital, which includes knowledge and skills of single human or society (Czerny A., Czerny M., 2006, p. 284; Kuciński K., 1999, p. 53). The following part of the article concerns the level of the education of the future African creative sector, i.e. the access of high- and middle-educated people to the labor market, their international cooperation in research and their effectiveness measured in the �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 173 number of registered patents. The comparison with Asian countries, which are the example of success in international business, provides the broader perspective. More than 50 years ago, almost half of the world citizens (43–50%) were illiterate, and the majority of them originated from the so-called developing countries. Africa was the most affected continent, where ca. 80–86 percent of people did not participate in scholar education at all. Relatively high rates of literacy were observed only in Democratic Republic of Congo which was a Belgium colony, where 35–40 percent of the society was able to read, following Madagascar (30–35 percent) and Egypt (26 percent) (Kaczmarek T., 1998, p.285). Accordingly, in the half of the nineties of the 20th century, level of literacy remained low in two main areas: Africa and Asia. In Africa, indicators concerning the level of education in SubSaharan states are still the lowest in the world. In the beginning of 21st century only two third of men and one third of women were able to read (World Education Report, 2000). The second area of illiteracy is Asia, particularly South Asia. Even in the late fifties and the sixties of 20th century in most countries of Middle East, South Asia and Indochina, the illiteracy rate reached 80 percent, but in several countries of these regions this indicator was even higher. 30 years later, in majority of Middle East states, 75 percent of adult citizens were able to read and write. The highest rate of literacy was noted in Israel and the so-called Asian Tigers (90 percent and more), where development of education system was accompanied by dynamic economic growth in the seventies and eighties of 20th century (Kaczmarek T., 1998, p. 284). Besides the literacy indicator, effective method to examine the education quality is to measure an average time of scholar education. People living in high developed countries spend at school �174 Izabella Łęcka more than 10 years. In turn, in Africa (e.g. in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Chad, Somalia) and in less developed Asian countries (Afghanistan, Bhutan) the average education time is under 1 year. This indicator well illustrates a social-economic gap between the richest and the poorest countries (Kuciński K., 1999, p. 283). In most economies (especially in developed ones), innovations in 50 percent cases stemmed from the company staff so they depend on education of people who work in the enterprise. Thus, the appropriate quality of education and science research are the main factors of innovative economy growth. Relation between education and innovation is a long term process of indirect character. The scientific results are helpful to make the education more modern, yet well-educated human has more chances to be innovative. It could be said that the education system has a bigger influence on innovation level of economy even than system of scientific research. Although in contemporary world new technology markets are dominated by huge international corporations, high speed of new technology development creates new niches of specific technological chances, available for less developed countries as well (Wierzbicki A., 1995). It should be noted, that the biggest potential of people of 20–24 years, who are able to finish studies and work using high technologies and know-how, live in China. However, it will be surpassed by India soon and then by African countries (all together) (Science & Engineering Indicators, 2004, p. 34). The number of graduated young people living in Sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mozambique) has varied from 1 percent in the beginning of new millennium to few percent in 2005. In 2010 the average rate of youngsters who finished the high school was higher and reached 40 percent (Global Education Digest, 2012). Unfortunately, students rarely choose technical or engineering studies (World Education Indicators 2005). �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 175 Several Asian states, especially those politically unstable, still have a huge problem with education on the third level. Top 10 African universities (4 International Colleges & Universities, 2013) are universities from South Africa (the University of Cape Town, the University of Pretoria, Universiteit Stellenbosch, the University of the Witwatersrand, the University of South Africa), four Egyptian universities (The American University in Cairo, the Cairo University, the Mansoura University, the Alexandria University), as well as the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. Simultaneously, in the last decade the universities of East, South-East and South Asia (even without Japan) have made much bigger progress in the quality of education. On the list of the best world universities (QS Top World Universities, 2014/2015), in top 100 there are 12 Asian schools (excluding Japan) meanwhile the University of Cape Town has been ranked on 171 place and the University of the Witwatersrand on 318 place. Among the best world universities there are schools from Hong Kong, China, South Korea and Singapore. Thus, this is not surprising that these states are able to create innovation and added value in relation to actual knowledge. It is well visible in the number of scientific articles, inventions, as well as rising export and a growing number of scientists and engineers (Science and Technology ..., 2007). Since the nineties of 20th century, the number of people in Asia obtaining a doctoral degree in science and engineering (S&E) faculties has risen, reaching 24.9 thousands in 2001 (Table 1). Similar level was noted in the United States (26–27 thousands in 2001–2003) and it was nearly doubled in European Union (40–42 thousands in 2001–2003). 45 percent of Asians, who are doctors in science and engineering faculties, have a Doctor of Engineering degree (EngD), twice more than in EU or the US. (Asia’s rising..., 2007, p. 4). �176 Izabella Łęcka Table 1. The number of doctorates in science and engineering (SE) in Asian countries Field/The year of reaching doctoral degree All disciplines (Science&Engineering) (S&E) Asia China India South Korea Taiwan 1995 15, 192 3, 417 4,000 1,920 650 2000 23,584 7,304 5,395 2,865 931 2001 24,874 8,153 5,394 2,956 970 2002 NA 9,523 5,527 3,225 1,069 2003 NA 12,238 6,318 3,192 1,167 1995 6,096 1,659 335 938 373 2000 11,163 4,484 723 1,654 502 2001 11,242 4,341 778 1,638 521 2002 NA 5,252 734 1,899 587 2003 NA 6,573 779 1,868 656 Doctorates on engineering NA (not available). According to International Standards Classification of Education (ISCED 97), S&E contains the following fields: education, humanities and arts, social sciences, business and law, business and administration, science, engineering, manufacturing and construction, agriculture, health and welfare, as well as services (www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/isced/ISCED_A.pdf, pp: 39–45). Source: Asia’s rising science and technology strength, 2007, p. 5; changed. China visibly leads the „production” of Doctors of Engineering ahead of other states in the region. It is also well observed that in India the number of EngD is relatively small, only two times bigger than in South Korea, which population is definitely smaller (Table 1). Moreover, a lot of young people decided to prepare their doctorates in well-developed states. It means that the real number of doctors with Asian origin is much higher. Many students from Third World were graduated not only in the United States (pic. 1), but also in the Great Britain, France, Canada and Japan. Annually, at the turn of 20th and 21st centuries, �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 177 37 percent of doctorates on S&E in the Great Britain were prepared by foreign students. Half of that number concerned engineering. In France more than 20 percent of doctorates were written by foreigners (20 percent of this number on engineering), in Germany – 9 percent, in Japan – 14 percent. 44 percent of doctors on mathematics and IT in the Great Britain and 29 percent in France were foreigners. Persons with doctoral degree who decided to return to the country of the origin have had a huge impact on development of science and research, as well as on building economic power of their countries (Science & Engineering..., 2004, p. 40). Pic. 1. Regions of origin of foreign EngD in United States in 1990 and 2000. Source: own work based on: Asia’s rising science and technology strength, 2007, p. 12. In last couple of years the signs of success of Asian „Tigers” have been visible primarily in science. Since 1991 Chinese scientists have been the largest group of doctors of science and engineering among Asian and EU citizens (from 1.5 thousand to 3.1 thousand of Chinese doctors per year). From the middle of the nineties of 20th century there have been 3 times more Chinese doctors than �178 Izabella Łęcka Indians and 2.5 times more than Korean (having regard to the difference between demographic potential of these states). Moreover, in last few years the number of publications written by Asian S&E scientists has significantly risen. There is a small number of African students on American universities in spite of the fact that United Nations led program (USAID) which already 30 years ago envisaged support for the development of science and technology in Africa. However, it was interrupted in the beginning of the eighties of 20th century. Private foundations made the similar decision. Nevertheless, for few years the American and African cooperation on education and science has been growing. A consortium of Ford, Rockefeller, Carnegie and McArthur Foundations has renewed the investments in many African universities. The consortium is planned to be supported by other organizations. The cooperation will concern students’ exchange, training, science research and improvement of skills in fields of health, agriculture, environment and private sector. The main goal is to create the African leaders of entrepreneurship and technology. (Lake A., Whitman Ch. T., 2006, p.122). In years 1988–2001 in Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of articles published in ISI Citation Index fell, which is evidently related to the shrinking science activity in this region. That was caused by dramatically small activity of scientists in Nigeria and RSA, after political changes in the nineties (Regional and ..., 2004). Nevertheless, these two countries accompanied by Kenya and Zimbabwe are still on top list of places in Africa, where significant group of scientists publish in prestigious world magazines. Excluding those countries, publishing scientists become also from Cameroon, Ethiopia, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda. Science is much more developed in North African countries and in the Middle East. Although the science market is dominated by Western experts (according to Zegeye and Vambe, 2006), the number of scientists �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 179 with African roots has been growing dynamically. As authors suggest, „science production” is not free from the influence of political ideologies, thus governments should ensure the best conditions for science development. Although the number of publications is growing each year in all African regions, the role of Africa in global „scientific production” is still really insignificant. (pic. 2). Pic. 2. The growth of number of working people with at least secondary education in the world, years 1990–2000 Source: Barrow R.J., Lee J J., 2000, International Data on Educational Attainment, CID Working Paper, 42, Center for International Development; quoted from: Asia’s rising science and technology strength, 2007, p. 9. For many countries spending on research and development (R&D) is a key factor of economic growth and prosperity. The amount of R&D spending is treated as an indicator of country’s potential to implement technological innovations. In poorer states spending on development of R&D sector is really crucial, because it shows political and economic will to connect country with processes of global development and permanent modernization of public life. �180 Izabella Łęcka Due to diverse level of economic development in Asia and Africa, the scale of public spending on R&D is different. The majority of African countries and several poorer Asian states do not invest in R&D at all or they allocate only a little amount of money (Table 2). In 2005–2012 spendings in Sub-Saharan Africa were the lowest in the world (0.58 percent of region’s GDP), whereas in the same period the East Asian countries spent 2 percent of GDP (World Development Indicators: Science and technology, 2015). Table 2. Spendings on R&D in 2005–2012 in African countries (official data only) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Country Algeria Botswana Burkina Faso ex Republic of Congo Egypt Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Madagascar Mali Morocco Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Nigeria RSA Senegal Tanzania Uganda Cape Verde Zambia R&D spendings (% GDP) 2000–2005 0,16 0,39 0,18 — 0,19 0,20 — — — — 0,06 0,16 — — 0,38 0,52 — — 0,87 0,09 — 1,25 — 0,03 Source: own work based on World Development Indicators 2008, 2015. R&D spendings (% GDP) 2005–2012 0,07 0,53 0,20 0,13 0,43 0,25 0,58 0,13 0,38 0,98 0,01 0,11 0,66 0,73 0,37 0,46 0,14 0,22 0,76 0,54 0,52 0,56 0,07 0,34 �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 181 The R&D funds flow from a state budget (GERD – Government Expenditure on R&D), economy (BERD – Business Expenditure on R&D) and in much smaller scale from private non-profit institutions, e.g. foundations (PERD – Private Expenditure on R&D). The base for deeper analysis of the modernization and innovation of states’ economies should be built on indicators concerning the structure of spending and job creation in R&D sector. Unfortunately it is not possible due to lack of data in many African and Middle East countries, as well as in less developed Asian states. Investments on R&D are simultaneously the reason but also the consequence of economic development. Invested funds do not come entirely from state budget. Part of money comes from foreign investments of high developed countries on research in dynamic developing countries. In American research prepared by Kauffman Foundation (Hatzichronoglou T., 2008, p. 69–70), international corporations marked the most important issues for choosing the localization of R&D investment in developing countries: the potential of growth, the quality of scientific staff, lower cost of research, chances of cooperation with universities and support in product sale. The most crucial differences concern the role of intellectual properties and possibilities of preserving them in developed and developing countries. It means that despite the importance of preserving intellectual properties on the raising markets and potential danger of steeling them, they do not seem to be vital reasons to obey the law. The amount of GERD shows the importance of political support for development. The amount of BERD is the factor of interest of business for development. The share of public spending on R&D in GDP depends on economy structure and export of a given country. Bigger share of processing industry in export (particularly hi-tech) means bigger investments related to R&D. The amount and structure of investment also depend on: �182 Izabella Łęcka – pro-export industry orientation, because the production located on foreign markets has to maintain high and permanent innovation to be competitive (higher value of BERD); – type of state technology policy. If the state supports only existing knowledge and assumes that import or wide use of foreign technologies (particularly advanced technologies) gives better results than own R&D actions (what is characteristic for developing countries), GERD indicator will be relatively lower; – high rate of depreciation of the results of R&D and related capital investments (buildings, equipment). It causes investment’s growth, because it increases the costs and thus reduces the tax base; – tax breaks for R&D enterprises. When this kind of instruments promoting R&D is introduced to fiscal system, it evidences the pro-investment state policy; – higher investments on research and development are conducive to the high share of large companies in the overall industrial structure (higher value of BERD). However, according to Maciej Grabski (2006), not GERD, but the value of BERD is the most crucial indicator of innovation and economic stimulator. Low value of BERD, ca. 30 percent, is characteristic for low-innovated economies. It is impossible to say that African countries have important contribution in modern entrepreneurship and high technologies. At the same time Asian countries are deeply engaged in global hi-tech market, products and services, as well as they spend a lot of money investing in their own R&D projects (Asia’s rising ..., 2007). It is not known, what was the real beginning of this spectacular development. According to Easterly (2008, p. 293–4), this process supposedly has not been started due to the support of World Bank (as it is emphasized in World Bank publications), but thanks to young, creative entrepreneurs. A good example is National Institute of Information Technology (NITT), private IT school established in India by Rajendra �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 183 Pawar i Vijay Thadani in the beginning of ‘80. They have quickly decided to expand their activity, giving concessions for new schools in the cities and countryside, where there was a demand for it. NITT preserved its trademark very carefully by unified classes, teachers’ training and controls the standards of teaching. The project became perspective and profitable. Similarly, India has reached a spectacular success in providing IT services for American companies. The most expensive firm on the Indian stock exchange ensures services to 138 enterprises ranked in Fortune 1000 and Global 500. The founder, Mr Azim Premji graduated from the Stanford University. In developing countries, most companies doing business in the R&D sector are foreign. Only 237 of 1250 biggest R&D corporations have huge budget and turnover about 130 million dollars per year. Two third of them are American. 65 percent of them act in the IT sector (including software) and 25 percent in biotechnology and pharmacy (Hatzichronoglou T., 2008, p. 48). Table 3. Research and development in Africa and the Middle East financed by international corporations, with 50 percent share of United States in 2004 (millions of US dollars) Region/country Africa Egypt Nigeria RSA others Middle East Israel Saudi Arabia Emirates Others South America and Caribbean 2004 28 2 D 23 0 875 872 D 2 0 726 D – secret data Source: U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Financial and operating data for U.S. Multinational Companies, 2004. �184 Izabella Łęcka The amount of spending on R&D is an indicator which determines the growth of the number of registered patents or trademarks, as well as rising of export of new technology and technical services. The patent’s activity is very often perceived as a measure of country’s innovation. However, it is difficult to compare the values of this indicator measured in different countries, due to diversity of patent regulation. What helps to make it more useful is an annual list of patents in USA, containing data of inventors’ nationalities (Table 4). Table 4. Patents obtained in United States by individual inventors and organizations from different parts of the world* in 2008. Source: own work based on: Patent statistics report available for viewing, 2008; different schedules. Region/ country/ territory China Hong Kong India South Korea Singapore Taiwan Thailand Malaysia Philippines Kenya RSA 2004 2008 individual organizations’ ∑ patents** patents individual organizations’ ∑ patents patents 83 59 16 262 12 1860 6 13 1 3 36 121 59 25 196 17 1065 3 1 0 1 19 200 139 278 3802 365 3423 0 43 17 3 14 283 198 294 4064 377 5283 6 56 18 6 50 Change in years 2004–2008[%] 822 145 495 6977 296 4658 1 121 9 0 19 943 204 520 7173 313 5723 4 122 9 1 38 233 3 93 76,5 –17 8 –33 118 50 –500 –24 * The patent is included to the heritage of this country, from which came the first inventor on the list. ** The list of patents registered for a given country by the origin of the main inventor includes only these organizations, which in 2004–2008 obtained at least 5 patents. The overall number of patents could be larger. Among the African countries, Egypt, Kenya and the RSA have the larger number of patents, although the role of the RSA in the �Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)... 185 world science has been unfortunately falling down since the middle of the nineties of 20th century. Conclusions The development of SMEs in Africa is really vital, not only because of expected incomes, but also regarding new jobs creation for the rising number of young people, who have just started their professional carriers. It should be remembered that the economic success of Asian states was involved with the cooperation with foreign companies, which chose Asia for expansion mainly because of human capital. African countries have to try their best to create the most friendly and flexible business environment. The infrastructure gap will be reduced steadily, but it takes time and capital, which is lacking in many countries’ budgets. 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World Development Indicators: Science and technology, (2015), http:// wdi.worldbank.org/table/5.13, (accessible 19.04.2015). World Education Indicators (2005), Education trends in perspective, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, OECD, Paris. �188 Izabella Łęcka World Education Report (2000), The right to education, UNESCO, Paris. Zegeye A., Vambe M., (2006), Knowledge production and publishing in Africa, Development Southern Africa, 23 (3, Sept.): 333–349. �Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital among SMEs A case Study of SMEs in Iringa Municipality Abstract The study aimed at assessing the role of saving in solving the problem of capital among SMEs in Iringa Municipality. The research was guided by three objectives: to determine the sources of fund among SMEs, to compare between the contributions of saving and other sources of finance to capital structure among SMEs, and to examine factors affecting the level of saving among SMEs owners. The research was guided by three research questions: What are the sources of fund among SMEs, to what extent does saving contribute to capital structure among SMEs, as compared to other sources of finance, and what are the factors affecting the level of saving among business owners? Cross sectional survey research design was employed to collect data from SMEs owners in Iringa Municipality, who were selected randomly. Data analysis was done using a Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive results were presented using frequency tables. Linear regression model was used to assess the factors affecting the level of saving. The findings revealed that the level of initial capital, number of dependents and level of profit had significant effect on the level of saving. Key words: SMEs, Savings, Source of Capital Introduction The small and medium scale industry is seen as the key to Tanzania’s economic growth, alleviation of poverty and unemploy- �190 Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. ment in the country. Available data shows that SMEs contribute about 40% to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (Tamara, 2006). SMEs are said to be 80% of registered businesses, each employing between 5 and 99 people (Tamara, 2006). Promotion of such enterprises is therefore of paramount importance since it brings about a great distribution of income and wealth, economic self-dependence, entrepreneurial development employment and a host of other positive, economic uplifting factors. According to the EU Survey report (2011), 74.8% of companies used debt financing. Unsurprisingly, the use of debt financing increased with enterprise size class. Debt financing was used by 66.3% of all micro-enterprises, 79.3% of all small enterprises, and 85% of medium-sized enterprises. The difficulty of using own savings in solving the problem of capital affects both developed and developing countries, though mostly affects developing ones. Debt access among emerging entrepreneurs has been a problem especially to youth who lack collaterals as required by most of financial institutions. Background of the Problem Most of the African Small-Medium Enterprises struggle to raise capital to establish and expand their businesses. According to Kauffmann (2005), “Africa’s SMEs have little access to finance, which thus hampers their emergence and eventual growth. Their main sources of capital are their retained earnings and informal savings, and loan associations, which are unpredictable, not very secure and have little scope for risk sharing because of their regional or sectorial focus. Over the past fifteen years, Tanzania has marked as one of the developing countries on an ambitious and long process of economic, social, and political reforms to improve the business environment and to increase economic growth and reduce poverty. The Government approved the SME Development Policy in 2003. The policy �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 191 examines the contributions of the SMEs in the economic, social and political reforms embarked by Tanzania for the past years, as stipulated in the (FYDP); 2011/12-2015/16; “to improve the business environment so as to increase economic growth and finally reduce the prevalent poverty level”. Research Objectives General Objectives The main objective of the research was to assess the role of savings in solving the problem of capital to the SMEs. Specific Objectives of the Study Researcher studied the problem by focusing on the following specific objectives 1) To determine the sources of fund among SMEs. 2) To compare between the contributions of saving and other sources of finance to capital structure among SMEs. 3) To examine factors affecting the level of saving among SMEs owners. Research Questions 1) What are the sources of fund among SMEs? 2) To what extent does saving contribute to capital structure among SMEs as compared to other sources of finance? 3) What are the factors affecting the level of saving among business owners? Significance of the Study The study is significant to SMEs owners and Government. To SME’s, the results of this study will help them to work out various methods of accessing saving in raising and expanding capital structure of their business. Suggestions and recommendations �192 Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. arising from this research are helpful to them in overcoming the problems of financing their businesses. To the Government, the study will compliment on the efforts of Government in promoting development of SME’s. The results will create awareness on the problems hindering SME’s level of saving for financing business and hence recommendation on their solutions will give Government an opportunity to support SMEs in Tanzania. Literature Review Review of Relevant Theory: Pecking Order Theory Myers (1984) argued that firms prefer internal finance to external one and, if resort to external finance becomes necessary, debt finance is preferred to equity finance. If internal funds are not enough to finance investment opportunities, firms may or may not acquire external financing, and if they do, they will choose among the different external finance sources in such a way as to minimize additional costs of asymmetric information. Conceptual Framework �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 193 Empirical Literature Review Due to difficulties in accessing finances, many SMEs start with personal savings, or finances borrowed from family and friends. Okraku and Croffie (1997) argued that SMEs rely primarily on personal savings of owners, business profits, family members or friends for their financial needs (they have little or no access to external credit). This is caused by high cost of borrowing which leads SMEs to prefer mostly personal saving to loan. Having noted that saving rates in Africa are generally estimated to be low and stagnant, most of SMEs in Africa have earn low profit and have large family size which lead to more consumption than saving. Due to low profit, SMEs use that money for family purpose, which reduces the level of saving for improving the business. According to Nesta (2009), debt financing is the most widely used form of finance as it is generally one of the least expensive ways to raise finance. It is most suitable for established lower risk businesses, with a stable cash flow to repay the debt. Lack of access to finance has been cited as problem for SMEs, while information on the financial performance and capital structure of SMEs is generally unavailable. Within the access to finance category, credit conditions relating primarily to interest rate, maturity, collateral requirements and lending procedures were perceived to be the most important limiting factors. Methodology Research Design, sampling and data collection The study used cross-section survey design, the method was chosen as it is non-resource intensive in terms of time and money, but it is capable of exploring the required data. The study was conducted in Iringa Municipality, the areas with large number of SMEs varying in characteristics. The targeted population specified by the researcher �194 Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. was the owners of small and medium enterprises located in Iringa Municipality. The researcher used probability sampling method. Data Analysis Descriptive data were presented by using frequencies tables and cross tabs which used responses from respondents and were analyzed by reflecting the objectives and goals. The answers provided by the respondents were analyzed with descriptive statistics and frequencies measures found on SPSS. Those kind of measures used depend on the required analysis needed by researcher. Frequency distribution table was used to present results of descriptive data. To assess factor affecting level of saving, linear regression model has been used. The linear regression used in this study is, LoS = β0 + β1Age+ β2Sex + β3 Dependants + β4Profit + β6Capital + β7Education Where LoS represents Level of Saving Research Findings and Discussion Respondent Background Information Sex of Respondents The finding shows that 32 (64%) of the respondents were male and 18 (36%) were female, as shown in the table 1. It seems that most of the businesses were owned by men. There is a need to encourage women to get involved in entrepreneurship issues so as to improve economy and welfare of their families. Religion of the Respondents Data show that, 36 (72%) of the respondents were Christian while Muslim were 13 (26%) and Hindu were 1 (2%) of the re- �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 195 spondents. This variation occurred because researcher obtained the respondents by using random probability sampling; though in areas were the research was conducted Muslims and Christians dominated rather than other religions such as Hindu. Religion has a little impact on establishing businesses especially in this region, unlike other places where religions have some sort of hindering the involvement of some of the people in business. Age of the Respondents Data show that 26 (52%) were aged between 26–31 years, followed by 8 (16%) percent of respondents aged 20–25 years. The results therefore reveal that majority of the respondents, who participated in the study were aged around 26–31 years, meaning that youth have awaken on self-employment instead of waiting or depending on working for the institutions/organization. Education Level Majority of the participants in this study were primary school leavers, occupying 19 (38%) of the participants in the study. This was followed by secondary school leavers by difference of 2 respondents having 17 (34%) of respondents. Then, respondents who held diploma were only 6 (12%), followed by Certificate and Degree holders occupying 4 (8%) each. The results reflect that most of the owners of small and medium businesses were the ones who have low level of education because 72% of respondents have primary and secondary education, while 28% of respondents have above secondary education. The human capital theory postulates that the more educated and experienced the individual, the higher the degree of success in economic activities, so we expect to find a positive relationship between human capital variables and business performance (Chirwa, 2008). �196 Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. Location of the Business Location of the business is another variable which contributes a lot in the performance of the business, especially in the issues of increasing capital in the business. The results show, that 16 (32%) of the SMEs were located around schools and colleges, followed by respondents located at roadside/footpath and commercial in which each location has own 13 (26%) of the respondents in the study. 7 (14%) of the SMEs were located in the market place and 1 (2%) of the respondents used mobile market. 3.1.6 Number of Dependents Number of dependents is considered as the important variable in this study. The study assumes that even the number of dependents affects the increase of capital to the business. The results from findings show that majority of the respondents have 3–4 dependents with having 20 (40%) of the total respondents, followed by 0–2 dependents and 5–6 dependents where both have 12 (24%) each. And respondents who have more than 7 dependents cover only 6 (12%) of the respondents. Level of Saving The study wanted to explore the average level of saving per day, where the researcher assumes that the level of saving has a positive relationship with the access to own saving. Majority of the respondents save 0–5,000 per day, which occupies 27 (54%) of the respondents, followed by those who save between 5,001 and 10,000 by 13 (26%). Then, 4 (8%) of the respondents save more than 20,000. Respondents who save 10,001–15,000 and 15,001–20,000 occupy 3 (6%) of the respondents. This means that the majority of the SMEs have a low level of saving which can lead to little access to own saving because researcher believes, that saving determines the accessibility of own saving. �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 197 Table 1: Distribution of Respondents According to Daily Average Saving Daily Average Saving 0–5,000 5,001–10,000 10,001–15,000 15,001–20,000 20,001+ Total Frequency 27 13 3 3 4 50 Percent 54 26 6 6 8 100 Level of Profit Findings show that 21 (42%) of the respondents make profit between 10,001 and 20,000 per day, followed by respondents who earn a profit between 0 and 10,000 per day by having 18 (36%). 9 (18%) of respondents making profit of 30,001+ per day and 2 (4%) of respondents make a profit between 20,001 and 30,000 per day. This means that the majority of the respondents earn a low profit per day whereby this can be caused by the small size of their businesses. This may hinder not only accessibility of their own saving but even other sources of finance which lead to difficulties on increasing capital. Contribution Saving to Capital Structure From the findings it results that saving contributes by 69.49% on average and another source of finance contributes by 30.51% on average to the capital structure of the SMEs. This means SMEs have more access on saving from the level of starting their business and lead to operate under little pressure which can help them to make profit instead of focusing on the debt finance, which can lead them to get low profit or to operate under loss. Results of Linear Regression Table 2: Model Summary Model R .821 R Square .674 Adjusted R Square .629 �Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. 198 Based on our model, the correlation is 82.1%, which indicates a good level of prediction. Independent variables explain 62.9% of the variability of level of saving which indicated through R2 value which is a relative strong association between independent variables and dependent variables. Table 3: Linear Regression Model Unstandardized Coefficients B (Constant) Gender Initial Capital Education Age Number of Dependants Level of Profit .206 –.043 1.162 .132 .132 .332 .980 Std. Error .395 .252 .358 .304 .395 .160 .245 Standardized Coefficients t Sig. .520 -.170 3.249 .435 .334 2.082 4.007 .606 .866 .002 .666 .740 .043 .000 Beta –.016 .420 .048 .042 .254 .389 Results of Linear Regression The results in Table 3 show that capital, level of profit and dependents are all statistically significant to the level of saving, which means their p-value is less than 0.05, while other variables including age, education and gender are statistically insignificant to the level of saving (p>0.05). Predictors of the level of saving with Capital (b=1.162, p=0.002); capital coefficient is positive, which means SMEs with high capital have predicted to save more than the ones who have used low capital in their business and the results mean, that if the capital increases to the business in one unit, the level of saving is predicted to increase by 1.162, too. Level of profit (b=0.98, p=0.000), which means SMEs which earn more profit per day have a chance of having a higher level of saving than ones who have earned low profit per day: this indicates, that as the level of profit increases by 1 TSH, the level of �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 199 saving will increase by 0.98 TSH. Dependants (b=0.332, p=0.043), this means as dependents change by 1, the level of saving is also going to change by 0.332 TSH. Ambrose J. (2012), in his study tests factors for saving mobilization in which one of the variables was dependency level, shows that the dependence level was statistically significant to saving mobilization. The results show that the number of dependents and the savings for growth show very significant variation at 0.01 level of significance (F = 4.99, df = 3), p = 0.002) showing that the dependency level is a factor with an immense influence on savings mobilization for growth of woman enterprises. From the results the researcher concludes that capital, profit and dependents related to the level of saving of the SMEs, as these variables change, lead to the change of the level of saving of the SMEs. SMEs should improve capital of their business, which may lead to increase the profit and their level of saving. Conclusion and Recommendations Conclusion First question wanted to know sources of fund among SMEs and sources considered in this objective were: savings, profit, loan and friends/family. Findings show that SMEs mostly use their own saving in the processes of increasing capital to their business. Saving is a loan taken to increase capital which represents other sources of finance. Second question wanted to know the contribution on own saving and other sources of finance on to capital structure among SMEs. The findings show that own saving contributes a lot to the SMEs capital structure, whereby own saving occupies 69.49% on the capital structure of the SMEs while other sources of finance have only 30.51% in the capital structure of the SMEs. This data valuated from the start-up capital of the respondents. �200 Kibona, K. and Shilla, B. Third question wanted to examine factors for accessibility of own saving. Through various literature reviews which deal with the accessibility of capital, researcher formulates different independent variables whereby researcher thinks that they contribute to the accessibility of own saving. Researcher uses the following variables gender including age, sex, dependents, capital, level of saving and level of profit. Through the linear regression test, it shows that capita, profit and dependents are statistically significant to the dependent variable, which means that only this variable can determine the accessibility of own saving to the SMEs or increasing their capital to the business. Even if other variables show that they are insignificant in determining the accessibility of own saving but the researcher thinks that some of them clearly have impact on the accessibility of own saving because on the analysis, which use cross tabs, some of them show that they have impact on the accessibility of their own saving. Recommendations The study recommends the following: SMEs should put more efforts on using own saving in establishing and expanding their business. This will help them to increase their level of profit. When they use more loans on establishment and expanding businesses even the level of profit and saving will decline because they should repay the loans provided. References Ambrose, J. (2012). Savings mobilization for growth of women-owned entrepreneurial ventures in Kenya. “International Journal of Business and Social Science” Vol. 3 No. 15. �A Role of Saving in Solving the Problem of Capital... 201 European Union (2011). SMEs access to finance, Ipsos Mori. Myers, S. (1984). Finance Theory and Finance Strategy. Institute of management sciences. NESTA (2009). “Reshaping the UK Economy”. The Role of Public Investment in Financing Growth. Business Economics and Skills. Kauffmann, C. (2005). “Financing SMEs in Africa”. Policy insights No. 7. Africa Development Bank. Kamara, H., (2013). European Small Business Finance Outlook, “Research & Market Analysis”, Luxembourg. ��conclusions The conference held at the University of Iringa was an exceptional opportunity for the Polish and Tanzanian researchers to meet regardless of physical distance separating these faraway countries. In fact, they share not only similar experiences of the socialist system but also common problems of the contemporary world. The meeting broadened our general knowledge by adding a wide variety of both theoretical and empirical approaches and also paved the way for publication of this volume. Unfortunately, some of the authors who had participated in the conference did not manage to send their papers. Nevertheless, we do hope that the collected texts will suffice to acquaint the potential readers with multifaceted aspects of sustainable development. Contemporary times confront us with increasingly demanding tasks to better ourselves, to improve our scientific and didactic work, and to enhance the surrounding world. However, we can face these civilizational challenges only once we realize the necessity of sustainable development and timely avert all negative phenomena caused by ourselves. We believe that this book will trigger reflection and inspire discourse both among scientists and students. We also hope that the Tanzanian-Polish conferences will be held in the future on a cyclical basis, as suggested by Prof. Nicholas Bang, the chancellor of the University of Iringa. Maciej Ząbek ��� https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/a0b4fe0917ea55f56de6b30ad7acb06b.jpg b1cf3b5e5367b4e45b7cc468f35425d8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszące się gonty / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Murzasichle (woj. małopolskie) Subject The topic of the resource budownictwo wiejskie ; dekarstwo ; Podhale Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia suszące się gonty Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1962 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_25.38.XIII_L.3.14.3_01 budownictwo wiejskie dach dekarstwo gont Murzasichle okolice Nowego Targu https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/9e1f60abcd9607d388ed70ec8cc0596e.jpg d8a4f8fee18a7856eea89f5bc40a4491 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszenie oscypków na podwysorzu w szałasie / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Brzegi Górne / Berehy Górne (woj. podkarpackie) Subject The topic of the resource jedzenie regionalne ; serowarstwo ; Bieszczady Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia oscypki suszące się w szałasie na półce zwanej podwysorzem Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_34.39.X_T.1.A.6_01 Brzegi Górne dawniej Berehy Górne jedzenie regionalne nabiał okolice Ustrzyk Dolnych oscypek oszczypek podwysorz pożywienie produkt regionalny serowarstwo suszenie oscypków https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/2734d63b483bc9ceaf6542976a0065b2.jpg 21ce92f8b918ad6f0bae617630a4f4c2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszenie podpuszczki / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Dolina Starorobociańska [Rówień za Wodą] (woj. małopolskie) Subject The topic of the resource pożywienie ; nabiał ; serowarstwo ; Podhale Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia wędzenie i suszenie podpuszczki (tzw. klag). Uwaga:- lokalizacja na mapie jest przybliżona Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_24.39.I_O.3.18.4_01 Dolina Starobociańska klag nabiał oscypek oszczypek Podhale podpuszczka pożywienie Rówień za Wodą serowarstwo wędzenie oscypków https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/fc2fc6de08e4a0e5bf99297d235bb129.jpg 12dfc04c5074ff5023d0d1715f81a73f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszenie tytoniu na ścianach drewnianego budynku / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Załucze Stare / Załucze (woj. lubelskie) Subject The topic of the resource budownictwo wiejskie ; budynek mieszkalny ; używki ; uprawa tytoniu ; Lubelszczyzna Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia budynek mieszkalny z suszącym się tytoniem Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_35.27.IV_B.3.7.1_01 budownictwo drewniane budownictwo wiejskie budynek mieszkalny okolice Włodawy suszenie tytoniu tytoń uprawa tytoniu używki Załucze Załucze Stare https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/beb48269726ce93d7d1bf12751020a41.jpg fc5f69931916935ce321905e2b6cfc37 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszenie tytoniu na ścianach zabudowań wiejskich / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Załucze Stare / Załucze (woj. lubelskie) Subject The topic of the resource budownictwo wiejskie ; budynek mieszkalny ; używki ; uprawa tytoniu ; Lubelszczyzna Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia budynki gospodarcze z suszącym się tytoniem (1) i stodołę z liśćmi tytoniu (2) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_35.27.IV_B.3.7.2_01 budownictwo drewniane budownictwo wiejskie budynek gospodarczy budynek mieszkalny okolice Włodawy suszenie tytoniu tytoń uprawa tytoniu używki Załucze Załucze Stare https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/a4261d18df2050156e9e1f2c2b9f7751.jpg 54cc67d6f3de6f37252c76153e55f306 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Suszenie tytoniu na ścianie drewnianego budynku gospodarczego / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Załucze Stare / Załucze (woj. lubelskie) Subject The topic of the resource budownictwo wiejskie ; budynek gospodarczy ; używki ; uprawa tytoniu ; Lubelszczyzna Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia stodołę z suszącym się tytoniem Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_35.27.IV_B.3.7.3_01 budownictwo drewniane budownictwo wiejskie budynek gospodarczy okolice Włodawy stodoła suszenie tytoniu tytoń uprawa tytoniu używki Załucze Załucze Stare https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/42ef823c2c302a5b3e0ff706a2b52953.jpg f0b819b0d2eda666e2953e719a471b5f https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/463dbf7a716b70d814ae4383c5dea36f.jpg c1e200f2e8c0f19f447dc88bbe8a2370 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego Subject The topic of the resource Fotografie terenowe Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - kolekcja zawiera 1198 niepublikowanych zdjęć z badań terenowych (lata 1960-1987), syg. FNK (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie). zobacz także: https://paenew.us.edu.pl Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Św. Jan Nepomucen / Kolekcja fotografii Zygmunta Kłodnickiego - Łąka (woj. podkarpackie) Subject The topic of the resource religijność ludowa ; kult świętych ; mała architektura sakralna ; rzeźba sakralna ; Podkarpacie Description An account of the resource fotografia przedstawia rzeźbę św. Jana Nepomucena (1) oraz fragment figury (głowę) (2) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zygmunt Kłodnicki Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archiwum Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego w Cieszynie (depozyt Zygmunta Kłodnickiego) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa z twórcą (umowa licencyjna) Relation A related resource kolekcja fotografii terenowych Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (Archiwum PAE w Cieszynie) Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource fotografia Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context PAE_FNK_32.34.X_H.2.16.4_01 PAE_FNK_32.34.X_H.2.16.2_01 kult świętych łąka mała architektura sakralna okolice Rzeszowa religijność ludowa rzeźba sakralna św. Jan Nepomucen https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/fef980bf87859f0ef5cd69e34f9ac6a7.pdf 1d7fa7884bc35b60f6a525ea2be1d140 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Barbarzyńca Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource umowa licencyjna z Wydawcą Language A language of the resource pol Type The nature or genre of the resource czasopismo nieregularne Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5619 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5223 Title A name given to the resource Swaggie on the road, czyli o figurze noamdy w literaturze XIX-wiecznej Australii/ Barbarzyńca 2009 nr 3-4 (16-17) Description An account of the resource Barbarzyńca - pismo antropologiczne, 2009 nr 3-4 (16-17)s.47-58 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rzońca, Joanna Language A language of the resource pol Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stowarzyszenie Antropologiczne „Archipelagi Kultury” Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text Joanna n / Ur. w I 982 roku. W 2005 roku ukończyła studia na kierunkach stosunki etniczne i migracje m i ę d z y n a r o d o w e oraz filmoznawstwo. Obecnie jest doktorantką (nauki humanistyczne, specjalność nauki o sztuce) na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ, a także nauczycielką wiedzy o kulturze w IV LO w Krakowie. Zakochana w Australii i Kanadzie, roztrząsa p r o b l e m a t y k ę kulturowej tożsamości w tych wieloetnicznych społeczeństwach oraz to, w jaki sposób zagadnienia t o ż s a m o ś c i o w e przedstawiane są w sztuce owych k r a j ó w - malarstwie, literaturze i filmie. Swaggie on the road czyli o figurze nomady w literaturze XIX-wiecznej Australii Zamiast w s t ę p u ustralia to kontynent bezkresnych prze­ strzeni i jako taki stanowił dla chcące­ g o go przemierzyć człowieka ogromne wyzwanie, co nie zmieniło się zresztą do dziś. wwwan Australijski outbac\ nie bez podstaw kojarzy się z wolnością i swobodą, ale z drugiej strony czę­ sto bywał dla rzucających mu wyzwanie śmiał­ ków przeciwnikiem nie do pokonania. Obecnie ponad osiemdziesiąt procent Australijczyków mieszka w d u ż y c h miastach ciągnących się wzdłuż wybrzeży kontynentu . I choć ludzie ci nie mają na co dzień nic wspólnego z interiorem środkowych części kraju, to jednak outboc\ był i jest nadal esencją australijskości, która jednoczy dwudziestomilionowy naród. Przeciętny Austra­ lijczyk pielęgnuje w sobie sprzeczność: wiedzie wygodne życie mieszczucha, który na oczy nie widział odludzi wewnątrz kraju oraz niewiele wie o jego bogatej przyrodzie, a jednocześnie czuje się potomkiem postaci z XIX-wiecznych ballad narodowego wieszcza Australii A.B. „Ban­ jo" Patersona , który wykreował w swej twórczo­ ści postaci małomównych, zahartowanych przez naturę włóczykijów. Podróże marzeń. Australia, red. A. Willman, A.M. Thor, red. wyd. pol. J. Zaborowska, Biblioteka Gazety Wyborczej, Warszawa 2005. Zob. G.B. Davey, G. Seal,/! Guide to Australian Folklore. From NedKelly to Aeroplane Jelly, Kangaroo Press, Sydney 2003, s. 207, a takze: J. Lencznarowicz,,4«*a&, TRIO, Warszawa 2005, s. 44,84. Ai 1 1 3-1 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 BARBARZVMCA 2 2 �Joanna Rzońca 48 Trudny klimat kontynentu sprawił, że j u ż pierwsi mieszkańcy tych ziem praktycznie nie wiedli osiadłego trybu życia, a polując i zbierając nadającą się do spożycia roślinność, przemiesz­ czali się z miejsca na miejsce. Aborygeni mieli bardzo specyficzne podejście do ziemi i kwestii zamieszkiwania jej. Czuli, że to nie ona należy do nich, ale oni do niej. Takie osobliwe formy własności ziemi były wplecione w opowieści o wydarzeniach Okresu Snu (Dreamtime), cza­ sów tworzenia się świata z wiecznie wszechobec­ nej przeszłości, która wciąż przeplata się z teraźnieiszościa i przyszłością Osia konfliktu białych z Aborygenami od chwili zetknięcia sie tych grup w 1788 roku była właśnie ziemia. Własność prywatna w tym własność ziemi w rozumieniu Andosasów wiązała sie z katastrami aktami no tarialnymi lub nrzynaLniei z wykonywaniem 3 h i h l i i n L nakazu by zasiedlać z.emie i czynić ia sonie noddana Przvbvwaiac do Australii Rrv t w z y c y uznali kontynent za ziemie n i c z y j " - /J l L w « c - i nokoiowo ia anektowali* Nie hvłn wiec n f i r i a l n J L n nv i wvnikaiareao ż niei Krótko mówiąc, biali kolonizatorzy uznali Australię za teren wcześniej nie zamieszkały, a sami zaczęli kolonizować ją w bardzo nieco­ dzienny sposób, tworząc z niej ogromne bry­ tyjskie więzienie. To właśnie zsyłki skazańców stanowiły pierwszą falę migracji, będącą zarazem falą najbardziej charakterystyczną i odciskającą znaczące piętno na historii Australii oraz świa­ domości jej mieszkańców. Wielu współczesnych jej obywateli ma swoje kryminalne lub nadzor­ cze korzenie. U źródeł australijskiej kultury leży przestępcza subkultura i antyautorytaryzm wrogość do instytucii maiacych zhierarchizowa­ ną strukturę i radykalny egalitaryzm kulturowy, 3 ] . Rickard, Australia. Historia kultury, Ossolineum, W r o c ł a w - W a r s z a w a - K r a k ó w 1994, s. 12-26; por. także: który manifestuje się przez twierdzenie: wszyscy jesteśmy równi . Australia u zarania swej państwowości była więc postrzegana jako przejściowy dom dla tych, którzy w Wielkiej Brytanii na lokum bynajmniej nie zasługiwali; jako miejsce, do którego wysyła się wszelkiej maści wyrzutków i rzezimieszków. Z czasem przybywać do niej zaczęli - j u ż z wła­ snej woli - poszukiwacze przygód, włóczykije, pechowcy chcący zacząć tu wszystko od nowa. Przemierzali oni australijski interior w poszuki­ waniu miejsca dla siebie. Jedni osiedlali się, bu­ dując domy i wybierając żywot farmerski, innym nigdzie nie udawało się zagrzać na dłużej miej­ sca i do końca swych dni oddawali się nieustan­ nej wędrówce przez australijskie przestrzenie. 5 Ta druga kategoria jest najbardziej popu­ larnym motywem XIX-wiecznej literatury Australii, która otoczyła owych włóczykijów aurą romantyczności, czyniąc z nich naro­ dowych bohaterów. Pisarze i poeci tworzący w drugiej połowie X I X stulecia przemycali czę­ sto w swoich dziełach motyw niepoprawnego łazika-marzyciela zaczerpnięty z ludowych opo¬ wieści. Swą twórczość nierzadko stylizowali na proste, rytmiczne ballady popularne wśród australijskiej klasy pracującej. Wyciągali jednak z rodzącego się wówczas folkloru australijskie­ go tylko niektóre elementy ludowego przekate najbardziej atrakcyjne i nośne by za ich pomocą wspierać podnoszony przez'polityków postulat ustanowienia państwowości austrahi skiei W tym sensie wiec działanie ówczesnych literatów z tamte™ kontynentu wnisać by nale zało w ziawisko folkloryzmu rozumianego iako wydobywanie z rradwii ludowe, historyczne, h,h aktiialnei takich ty ko elementów które J interesni^re y r^rii ich ^tr^krvinei fnrmv r y v emocjonalnej treści; prezentowanie ich tteśd 2004, s. 7-9. 4 J. Lencznarowicz, op.cit., s. 25-30. M. Clark, Historia Australii, Bellona, Warszawa - Gdańsk BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 1 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 �Swaggle on the road, czyli o figurze nomady w literaturze XlX-wiecznej Australii 49 odbiorcom mniej lub więcej autentycznej, lub przeważnie - przetworzonej, skomplikowanej, skróconej lub rozszerzonej" . W każdym razie to na oczach australijskich twórców końca X I X wieku i z ich niemałym udziałem, kształtował się na Antypodach białego świata nowy naród, w którym uprzywilejowane miejsce zajmował etos przemierzającego bezkre­ sny interior, zahartowanego przez trudy podróży poszukiwacza przygód i wolności. tą ochrzczono hodowców owiec z prostej przy­ czyny: początkowo większość z nich była ubo­ gimi emigrantami lub byłymi więźniami, którzy, by się dorobić, prowadzili nie zalegalizowaną hodowlę na ziemiach formalnie należących do Korony Brytyjskiej. Jednak stopniowo squatting nabrał pozytywnego znaczenia. W roku 1847 przyznano ludziom parającym się squattingiem prawo do pierwokupu zajmowanych ziem oraz korzystne dzierżawy . W Australii wyrosła w ten sposób tak zwana squatokracja. Owczy interes-wyzwanie australijskiego interioru Osadnicy kolonizujący australijski outback budzili zazwyczaj pozytywne emocje w społe­ czeństwie, a nastroje te podsycane były rodzącą się w X I X wieku australijską mitologią narodo­ wą, w której kolonizatorzy zajmowali szczegól­ ne miejsce. Sylwetka osadnika jest o tyle ważna, że z tej kategorii wyrastają inne, nie mniej ważne dla kulturowego krajobrazu Australii, męskie wizerunki bohaterów. Jednak to nie ona wycisnęła na folklorze au­ stralijskim tak znaczące piętno, by być obecną w piosenkach i wierszach, a uczyniła to inna grupa związana z tym samym „owczym intere­ sem". Byli to wędrowni postrzygacze. Ludzie ci strzygli owce, wędrując od jednej stacji hodow­ lanej do drugiej. Z tych wędrownych rolnych robotników i postrzygaczy narodził się wielki australijski etos człowieka interioru - włóczy­ kija naznaczonego pijaństwem i samotnością, a jednocześnie zahartowanego i bezwzględnie lojalnego dla współtowarzyszy pracy Osadnik bowiem to termin ogólny, którym określano nowo przybyłych, wolnych (choć nierzadko z bogatą przeszłością) ludzi, którzy w Australii chcieli „zacząć wszystko od nowa". Jedną z możliwości było dołączenie do gru­ py wielkich posiadaczy ziemskich parających się hodowlą zwierząt będących podstawą au­ stralijskiej gospodarki rolnej, czyli owiec. Gru­ pa ta znana jest w historii jako squatters. J u ż na początku X I X wieku owce, a szczególnie sprowadzona przez Johna Macarthura odmia­ na merynosów stały się motorem australijskiej gospodarki. Słowo sauatting oznacza samo— wolne przejecie jakiegoś miejsca czy obszaru i nielegalne (lub nie do końca legalne) objecie go w posiadanie przywłaszczenie go? Nazwą Środowisko wędrownych postrzygaczy owiec prezentuje powieść Napad z bronią w ręku au­ stralijskiego pisarza o brytyjskich korzeniach, Rolfa Boldrewooda. Zaczął on pracę nad Napadem... w 1880 roku. Powieść ta, ukazują­ ca się w odcinkach, a ukończona w 1888 roku, szybko przyniosła mu rozgłos, stała się najwar­ tościowszą pozycją w jego literackim dorobku i na stałe weszła do kanonu australijskiej klasyki. Jest to przede wszystkim książka przygodowa, jej treść świetnie charakteryzuje podtytuł: Opo­ wieść o życiu i przygodach w buszu i na polach złotodajnych Australii. Oprócz cech typowo roz­ rywkowych tekst zawiera także głębsza refleksie stanowiącą cenną analizę kulturowo-społeczną Australii drugiej połowy X I X wieku. Duza po- 6 5 J.Rickard,o/>.ttt.,s. 26-32. 6 Slowni\ etnologiczny. Terminy ogólne, 7 red. Z. Staszczak, P W N , W a r s z a w a - P o z n a ń 1987, s. 131, hasło: folkloryzm. 3 - 3 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 8 BARBARZYŃCA Obecnie pojęć squatting i squatters używa się na przykład wobec ludzi, którzy nielegalnie („na dziko") zamieszkują pustostany. Zob. s. 91 „Barbarzyńcy". �Joanna Rzońca 50 pularność książki sprawiła, że wielokrotnie się­ gali po nią twórcy filmowi, pierwsi j u ż w 1907 roku! Najnowszą jej adaptacją jest Napad z bro­ nię w ręku zrealizowany po upływie ponad stu lat od ukazania się powieści (1985 rok) w reżyserii Donalda Crombiea i Kena Hannama z udzia­ łem Sama Neilla i Tommyego Lewisa. W powieści o d n a l e ź ć m o ż n a wszystkie najważniejsze dla kultury australijskiej tropy i symbole tworzące narodową mitologię Australii - mitologię, która stała się podstawą tożsamo­ ści kulturowej współczesnych Australijczyków. Zesłańcy, „buszrangerzy", wędrowni postrzygacze owiec, sąuattersi, „kopacze" - to pojęcia odgrywające kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu się australijskiej tożsamości narodowej. Właśnie w postrzygaczy wcielają się na jakiś czas pracujący u pana Falklanda bracia Marstonowie, główni bohaterzy powieści. „Zostaliśmy z Jimem w Boree, póki nie ostrzyżono wszyst­ kich owiec. To się opłaca jeśli pogoda jest niezła, i czasem bywa dość wesoło, kiedy się zejdzie dwudziestu lub trzydziestu chłopa w chacie po­ strzygaczy" . Jednak zajęcie to, mimo że dobrze płatne i uczciwe, rządzi się własnymi, bezwzględnymi prawami. Przede wszystkim nie jest stałe i ska­ zuje tym samym parających się nim młodych mężczyzn na nomadyzm i włóczęgę, która nie zawsze ma dobre skutki. „Po skończeniu strzy­ żenia wszystkim nam zapłacono, postrzygaczom, ludziom, którzy myli owce, różnym popychadłom, kucharzom i pastuchom. Kto tylko był, oprócz pana M'Intyre i pana Falklanda, każdy otrzymał czek, 2L zarażeni świadectwo odejścia. Odeszli niby chłopcy puszczeni ze szkoły i CZC" sto równie nierozsądnie" . 9 Kto zatańczy ze m n ą Walca Matyldy? Postrzygacze tak n a p r a w d ę mieli pracę od przypadku do przypadku - czasem brak zajęcia i głód powodował, że najmowali się oni do wszelkich prac, nie tylko przy owcach. Nie­ kiedy zaś te same powody spychały ich na drogę przestępczą: dokonywali w ó w c z a s drobnych rabunków i wdawali się w bójki. Taki samotnik przemierzający australijski interior, wciąż ba­ lansujący na granicy prawa znany jest w Austra­ lii jako stva^77ici7i^ zwany również zdrobniale swaggie. Sylwetka swagmana jest bardzo popu¬ larna w australijskiej kulturze ale należy pamietać ze podobnie ak poprzednie opisywane kategorie także ta ma swój historyczny kontekst Wędrowni wygłodzeni robotnicy pojawili sie w Australii DO raz pierwszy podczas kryzysu go soodarcze.ro w latach dziewięćdziesiątych X I X wieku a nowrócili wraz z koleinym kryzysem na przełomie lat dwudziestych i trzydziestych XX wieku Waltzing Matilda Och! Kiedyś łazik w Billabong biwakował Pod drzewem Coolabah w cieniu skryty I patrząc na kipiący kociołek, tak śpiewał „Kto ze mną zatańczy walca Matyldy?" Kto zacznie walca Matyldy, kochana Kto ze mną zacznie walca Matyldy? Tańcząc Matyldę wiodąc wody torbę Kto ze mną zacznie walca Matyldy? Dołem baranek szedł napić się w sadzawce, Łazik podskoczył, chwycił go z góry 10 8 J. Lencznarowicz, op.cit., s. 21. 9 R. Boldrewood, Napad z bronią 12 można by przetłumaczyć jako tobołek, ^<>b. G.B. Davey, w ręku, Iskry, Warszawa 1988, s. 46. 10 Ibid., s. 53. 11 Swagman to słowo pochodzące od pojęcia swag, które G. Seal, op.cit., s. 244. 12 Wszystkie cytowane ballady Patersona (w całości lub we fragmentach) podaję w tłumaczeniu J.K. Piaseckiego [w:] Wiersze wybrane; A.B. („Banjo") Paterson, 14 wierszy i ballad, Księgarnia Akademicka, Kraków 1998. BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 3 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 �Swaggle on We mad, czyli o figurze nomady w literaturze XlX-wiecznej Australii I rad zaśpiewał gdy go do torby pakował „Ty ze mną zaczniesz walca Matyldy". Dołem przejechał rządca na swym wierzchowcu I policjanci: jeden, dwa, trzy. „Czy jest baranek schowany do twej torby? Ty z nami zaczniesz walca Matyldy". Ale łazik podskoczył i wpadł do sadzawki Topiąc się obok drzewa Coolabah A jego ducha słychać jak śpiewa w Billabong „Kto ze mną zatańczy walca Matyldy ?" Ta przytoczona w całości pieśń jest chy­ ba najbardziej z n a n ą australijską balladą i nieoficjalnym hymnem Australii. Piosenkę o wygłodzonym wędrownym robotniku, czyli 51 właśnie swagmanie, który przyłapany na kra­ dzieży owieczki woli śmierć niż utratę wolności, znają zarówno farmerzy pracujący wewnątrz kontynentu, jak i miastowi ockerzy. Jej autorem jest Andrew Barton Paterson, bardziej znany pod literackim pseudonimem „Banjo". Paterson urodził się w 1864 roku na far­ mie owiec w Narrambla koło Orange, w Nowej Południowej Walii, skąd jako dziesięciolatek został wysłany do babci, do Sydney, by zdobyć wykształcenie i uniknąć losu ciężko pracujące­ go i źle opłacanego parobka wiejskiego. Karierę zaczynał jako radca prawny w mieszczącej się w Sydney kancelarii prawnej „Street & Paterson", jednak drzemała w nim potrzeba romantycznej przygody, chciał mieć barwne wspomnienia, 13 FOT. ROBERT BURRESS, HTTP://SXC.HU �Joanna Rzońca 52 do których mógłby na starość wracać pamięcią. W związku z tym zaczął pisywać do poczytnego tygodnika „Bulletin" pod pseudonimem „Ban­ jo" (który zapożyczył od wyścigowego konia): „Wyszedłszy z biura puszczał wodze fantazji i jako Banjo wędrował w wyobraźni po od­ ludziach i spisywał wyimaginowane wyczyny wędrownych parobków i poganiaczy bydła, za­ zdroszcząc im jakimś fragmentem duszy, żałując trochę, że nie ośmielił się pójść w ich ślady" . Takie „podwójne życie" Paterson prowadził przez dziesięć lat. ClancyzOverflow Napisałem list do niego i z braku adresu jego Do Lachlan ten list wysłałem, gdzie go przed laty spotkałem; On strzygł owce gdym znał go i ten list posła­ łem doń, Tak w niepewne, z tym adresem: „Clancy z kraju Overflow". 14 Wszystko zaczęło się w 1889 roku, kiedy to w gwiazdkowym numerze „Bulletinu" ukazał się wiersz „Banjo" Patersona Clancy z Overflow, który z miejsca stał się przebojem. Inspiracją do napisania utworu była prawdziwa historia, z którą Paterson zetknął się osobiście, pracując w kancelarii. Chodziło o sprawę niesolidnego dłużnika, kowboja z Nowej Południowej Walii, który napożyczał pieniędzy i zniknął, a wierzy­ ciele zwrócili się o pomoc właśnie do Patersona. Młody radca zajął się poszukiwaniem niejakiego Clancy'ego. Wysłał utrzymane w surowym tonie wezwanie do dłużnika z nakazem uregulowa­ nia należności. Jednak człowiek bezmiarze australijskiego outbacku stawał sie nieuchwyt­ ny - wysłany list wrócił do kancelarii z nagry zmolonym-na ukos zdaniem Clancy pognał bvdlo na Oueensland i niewierny pxlzie on sa" Oczywiście wierzyciele nie byli zadowoleni ale dla Patersona bvł to świetny temat na ballade która w kilkudziesięciu wersach opiewała h i stnrie hładzacecrn nn interiorze listu i włóczące an s,e adzieś nn bezkresach Australii vArrtr* - 15 wiodącego proste, swobodne życie poganiacza, Które autor przeciwstawił swojej miejsKiej, nie- 13 R. Smith, Australia wieszcza z Antypodów, I odpowiedź szybko przyszła nieoczekiwanym pismem (Myślę, że była pisana paznokciem kciuka macza­ nym w smole), Inny strzygacz ją napisał, dosłownie ją zacytuję: „Clancy poszedł paść do Queensland i nie wiemy gdzie on są". (...) I w buszu przyjaciół ma Clancy, tam miłe go głosy witają Mruczeniem lekkiego wiatru i szumem rzeki na progach I widzi wspaniały obraz skąpanej w słońcu równiny A w nocy cudowną glorię gwiazd wiecznie jaśniejących. W mym biurze małym, obskurnym siedzę, kiedy promień Słońca nieporadnie walczy aby wejść pomię­ dzy domy wielkie W zapylonym, brudnym mieście cuchnące powietrze z piaskiem Wpada przez otwarte okno, rozsiewając to diabelstwo wszędzie. I jakoś myślę, że chciałbym bardzo zamienić się z Clancym, Przyłączyć się do pasterzy gdy przyjdzie sezon, wyruszyć „National Geographic. Polska" 9 (60) 2004, s. 48-69. BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 3 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 �Swaggle on We mad, czyli o figurze nomady w literaturze XlX-wiecznej Australii Gdy on zostanie na zawsze z książką czekową, z dziennikiem Lecz bardzo wątpię, czy zniósłby biuro, on, Clancy z Overflow. Wiersz pierwszorzędnie wpisał się w ówcze­ sne nastroje społeczne - rok przed jego publikacją obchodzono stulecie osiedlenia się na kontynen­ cie, a równocześnie trwały rozmowy dotyczące zjednoczenia australijskich kolonii, co ostatecz­ nie nastąpiło w roku 1901. Clancy z Overflow to początek literackiej kariery Patersona, który przez następne dziesięć lat stworzył cykl ballad opiewających australijską przyrodę i krajobraz oraz ludzi zamieszkujących wnętrze kontynen­ tu, którym nadał rys mityczny. Australię Paterso­ na przemierzali romantyczni poganiacze w stylu Clancy'ego świetni ieźdźcy znad Śnieżnei Rzeki czy tez mihiiacy wolność włóczykiie - wszyscy szorstcy małomówni ale o głębokich bezkre¬ snych niczym ich kontynent duszach. ' 53 czas jednego z pikników nad stawem Combo Waterhole opowiedziano Patersonowi historię postrzygacza owiec, który poprzedniej wiosny, podczas strajku postrzygaczy, popełnił w tym stawie samobójstwo. Ta opowieść rozbudziła wyobraźnię pisarza i postanowił ułożyć na jej podstawie balladę. W kilku strofach opisał biednego wędrownego swagmana, których pełno było wówczas w kra­ ju (lata dziewięćdziesiąte X I X wieku to czas pierwszego wielkiego kryzysu gospodarczego w Australii). Wędrowiec ten z głodu kradnie i zabija owcę, ale zostaje przyłapany przez boga­ tego właściciela i policjantów. W obliczu utraty wolności, którą ceni bardziej niż życie, postana­ wia popełnić samobójstwo w pobliskim stawie. Tytuł Walzing Matilda pochodzi od gwarowego wyrażenia, którym określa się pieszą wędrówkę nrzez outback ze zwiniętym w rulon posłaniem zwanym właśnie „Matyldą". Ponieważ Christina Macpherson miała mu­ zyczne wykształcenie, zaczęła szukać melodii do ballady. Wybrała szkocki utwór Thou Bonme Wood oCraigielea, do którego nikt nie znał słów i razem z Patersonem zabrali się do pracy nad piosenką, która stała się największym austra­ lijskim przebojem. Waltzing Matilda, mimo że przepełniona australijskimi idiomami, trudny­ mi do zrozumienia w innych częściach świata, zyskała ogroriiri^ popularność także poza jej rodzinnym kontynentem. „Do dziś ją Swoją najbardziej popularną balladę Pater­ na świecie ponad 500 razy Znalazła się w reper¬ son napisał podczas wakacji w Queensland, na tuarze Burla Ivesa, Billa Haleya i jego zespołu które w 1895 roku wybrał się wraz z narzeczo­ Comets Bon Jovi Liberace'a a nawet orkiestry ną, Sarah Riley. Razem z Sarah często bywali opery wiedeńskie/ Przerabiano i a na bluesa he u jej przyjaciółki, Christiny Macpherson i jej avy metal jodłowano Winston Churchil zaśpię brata, którzy posiadali ogromne (ponad sto ty­ wał ją rzekomo Charlesowi de Gaulle'owi przy sięcy hektarów) gospodarstwo hodowlane. Pod­ kolacii w swoiei willi w Cheauers w 1941 roku a na koniec obwieścił- To iedna z nainiekniei- W swoich balladach Paterson sięgał do więk­ szości australijskich symboli i mitów. I chociaż jego Australia to radosna kraina zamieszkana przez ludzi pomysłowych, stawiających czoło przeciwnościom losu, małomównych, a jednak przepełnionych kpiącym poczuciem humoru - nie brak w tych pieśniach również pewnej dozy smutku i samotności człowieka skazanego na nomadyzm. „Banjo" pokazywał zarówno ja­ sne, jak i ciemne strony włóczęgostwa po bezdro­ żach Australii. W WaltzingMatilda nawiązał też do więziennych fundamentów tej wędrówki. V 14 Ibid., s. 58. 15 Ibid., s. 53. 3 - 1 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 \J yV 1VJV11 • X. VJ szych piosenek na świecie" 16 R. Smith, op.cit., s. 66. BARBARZVNCA \WJ11U. 16 t-i XX C l | L ' X*^-XVXXX | �54 Umiłowanie wolności i sceneria australijskiego krajobrazu zawarte w piosence stały się bliskie Austra­ lijczykom do tego stopnia, że po­ wstało nawet muzeum poświęcone tej narodowej balladzie - Waltzing Matilda Centre w Winton. W 1977 roku, w pozostającej wciąż bez własn ego hymnu Australii, odbyło się referendum mające ostatecznie roz­ strzygnąć, który utwór będzie pełnił tę funkcję. Co prawda Waltzing Ma­ tilda przegrało z dostojna pieśnią Advance Australia Fair jednak juz sam fakt ze możliwość wyboru na narodowy hymn właśnie ballady Pa­ tersona bvła w oróle rozważana daie obraz popularności piosenki 17 Trudy i niedole włóczęgi przez interior Paterson opisywał także w innych balladach, w których dodat­ kowo umieszczał aluzje do sytuacji politycznej kraju oraz do nastrojów społecznych we współczesnych mu czasach. Nawiązywał do wielkiego kryzysu, niepewności jutra, która nękała swagmanów chwytających się każdego zajęcia, masowych strajków postrzygaczy i obawy białych robot­ ników przed zalewem taniej siły ro­ boczej z Chin {yellowperil): FOT. ELLY KELLNER, HTTP://SXC.HU Pieśń buszmana Wędruję do Castlereagh, jestem farmerskim spe­ cem Jestem zręczny w pętaniu, znam palenie żelazem, Umiem ujeździć źrebaka, machać siekierą cały dzień, Lecz nie trzeba takiego jak ja przy drodze Casdereagh. 17 A więc zwrot, chłopaki, zwrot, bo wcale nie wątpię, że Musimy zawrócić ku farmom dalej gdzieś, Z jucznym koniem, który biegnie za nami jak pies, Musimy się puścić przez kraj i w siodłach tele­ pać się. (...) http://www.aph.gov.au/library/handbook/referendums/pl977.htm 25. 06. 2009, zob. także: G.B. Davey, G. Seal, op.ck., s. 264. BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 3 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 �Swaggle on the road, czyli o figurze nomady w literaturze XlX-wiecznej Australii To jest zwrot, chłopaki, zwrot, bo wcale nie wątpię, że Musimy zrobić zwrot ku farmom dalej gdzieś: Juczny koń biegnie za nami, trzyma się nas jak pies I przejedziemy przez kawał kraju, telepiąc się. Według Bernarda Salta, dziennikarza z Mel­ bourne: „W duszy Australijczyka outbaĄ zaj­ muje dziwne miejsce (...). Potrzebna jest nam świadomość, że gdzieś daleko, ktoś prowadzi żywot w stylu Clancyego, chociaż my sami wca­ le nie mamy zamiaru tam jechać" . Tę sprzecz­ ność uosabiał sam Paterson - radca prawny z kancelarii w Sydney, potem dziennikarz i ko­ respondent prasowy oraz włóczęga - pieśniarz „Banjo" w jednej osobie. To dzięki poezjom Patersona jego rodacy mogą, nie opuszczając mia­ sta, przenieść się na bezdroża swego kontynentu i niemal zakosztować życia w buszu. Każdy z nich może poczuć się Clancym lub człowie­ kiem ze Śnieznei Rzeki i przypomnieć" sobie dawne wędrówki DO interiorze Bowiem Paterson chcąc zbudować własne romantyczne dzieie dał Australiiczykom narodowe wsnomnienia mitycz ną przeszłość, do której mogą wracać pamięcią: 55 jest uniwersalność tych ballad i to, jak głęboko weszły one Australijczykom w krew. Waltzing Matilda jest obecna zarówno podczas oficjalnych uroczystości, j ak też na knaj pianych spotkaniach przy piwie, a Russel Crowe, odbierając w 2001 roku statuetkę Oscara, zacytował ulubiony frag­ ment Clancy'ego z Overflow. Sylwetka Patersona jest także obecna w życiu kraju w inny sposób - jego wizerunek zdobi australijski dziesięciodolarowy banknot. Gdy busz staje się domem 18 Światło dnia zanika (...) Ale pół-słyszalny Refren dawnych czasów Znów to przypomina, Pamięć rozjaśniając. Te baśnie surowo Wykute, wprost z Buszu, Mogą myśl przywołać O tamtym tułaniu. Dlatego utwory „Banjo", jak i pamięć o nim samym są w Australii żywe do dziś. Zadziwiająca 18 R. Smith, op.ck., s. 58. 19 Na Ziemi Van Diemena zbiegli więźniowie nosili nazwę 3 - 1 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 Wśród takich kategorii, jak wędrowny postrzygacz owiec, czy swagman, na uwagę zasłu­ gują również dwie inne figury pojawiające się w australijskiej kulturze związane z nieustanną tułaczką po buszu. Mimo, że obydwie te kate­ gorie są synonimem nieujarzmionej wolności i ludzi, którzy nie mieli zamiaru wiązać się z ja­ kimkolwiek miejscem, wybierając busz jako swój dom, to sytuują się one na przeciwległych biegu­ nach - można powiedzieć, że jedna reprezentuje ciemne, a druga jasne strony „ludzi z buszu". Taką ciemną stroną było z pewnością buszrangerstwo, czyli kolejny wyznacznik australijskiej mitologii, do dziś obecny w naro­ dowej świadomości. To właśnie buszrangerstwo jest przewodnim tematem wielu powieści i fil­ mów, a obecnie jest jednym z bardziej nośnych motywów australijskiej popkultury. Początkowo termin bushranger (buszranger) oznaczał kogoś, kto w buszu miał jakąś oficjalną misję do spełnie­ nia (bush + ranger). Z czasem zaczęto tak okre­ ślać zbiegłych do buszu zesłańców (convicts), a później wszystkich przestępców, dla których outback ł się schronieniem i domem. Buszraneerzy z racii swei specyficznei profesii nie m o d i n i e d z i e n a d ł u ż e i zaerzać mieisca wybie­ rając więc taką drogę życiową, skazywali samych 19 s t a w a bolters; zob. J. Lencznarowicz, op.cit., s. 30. BARBARZVNCA �Joanna Rzońca 56 siebie na wieczną tułaczkę, która w tym przypad­ ku oznaczała niemal nieustanną ucieczkę przed wymiarem sprawiedliwości. Pierwszym „bandytą z buszu", którego ist­ nienie potwierdza historia, jest zbiegły w 1789 roku skazaniec, Black Caesar . Innymi sław­ nymi buszrangerami byli: Ben Hall, Jack Donohoe (Donahue), Frank Gardiner, Johny Gil­ bert . Najsławniejszym, a zarazem ostatnim był legendarny Ned Kelly, który w 1880 roku został powieszony na d z i e d z i ń c u wiezienia w Melbourne. Po jego śmierci proceder buszrangerstwa właściwie zaniknął. 20 21 Jedną z najbardziej znanych anonimowych XIX-wiecznych ballad australijskich poświęco­ nych wyjętym spod prawa, jest piosenka The Wild Colonial Boy, chętnie śpiewana nie tylko w Au­ stralii, ale także w Nowej Zelandii, Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. Ballada ta, oparta na prostej, tradycyjnej melodii ludowej, opowiada dzieje młodego rabusia, niejakiego Jacka Duggana, kryjącego się w buszu, który - jak głosi tekst - okradał bogatych i pomagał biednym. Postać Duggana, choć wzorowana, na Jacku Donohoe, jest jednak fikcyjna. Natomiast Ned Kelly był niewątpliwie i n ­ spiracją dla autora Napadu z bronię w ręku, który swą powieść zaczął pisać w roku śmierci sławnego buszrangera. Pomimo że w tekście można znaleźć pewne elementy z biografii Kel­ ly'ego, nigdzie nie ma do jego postaci bezpośred­ nich porównań. Prawdopodobnie sprawa Neda Kelly'ego, która w ó w c z a s bardzo podzieliła australijskie społeczeństwo, była w czasie, gdy powstawała powieść Boldrewooda, zbyt świeża, by móc bezpośrednio się do niej odwoływać. Nie było to zresztą konieczne, gdyż ówcześni czy­ 20 M . YtAtoi, Kino Australii. O ekranowej konstrukcji telnicy byli doskonale zorientowani w bieżącej sytuacji i z pewnością bezbłędnie odczytywali zawarte w Napadzie... aluzje i odniesienia. Należy wspomnieć o jeszcze jednym austra­ lijskim złoczyńcy, którego historia była świetnie znana Boldrewoodowi, niektórzy nawet dopa­ trują się w tej postaci literackiego pierwowzoru kapitana Starlighta. Chodzi tu o buszrangera Andrew George'a Scotta, znanego w Australii jako „Kapitan Moonlite" (ten pseudonim przy­ brał na cześć sławnego amerykańskiego krymi­ nalisty). Podobnie jak Ned Kelly, Scott także pochodził z Irlandii i został wraz ze swymi to­ warzyszami powieszony w 1880 roku. Ned Kelly stanowi do dziś inspirację dla wie­ lu twórców i jest chyba najbardziej znaną ikoną australijskiej kultury. Nie jest to postać jedno­ znaczna (nie była nią zresztą nawet za życia ) - w literaturze i filmach Kelly występuje jako romantyczny buntownik w charakterystycznej, zrobionej przez siebie zbroi. U większości od­ biorców budzi niekłamaną sympatię, a nawet podziw, w czym kompletnie nie przeszkadza fakt, że Kelly był po prostu bandytą. Pozycję le­ gendy, którą stał się ten buszranger, wzmocniło wiele powieści (choćby Prawdziwa historia Neda Kelly'ego Petera Careya), filmów (Ned Kelly Tbnv'epo Richardsona z tytułowa rola Micka la J e r a czy tez Ned Kelly Greeora Tordana z Heathem Ledoerem w roli downa) a także słynna seria obrazów SidneyaNolana 22 Buszmen natomiast, to kategoria odbierana jednoznacznie pozytywnie. Pojęcie to ma swo­ je źródła również w XIX-wiecznej literaturze australijskiej, w której częste było podkreślanie „typowo australijskich elementów" odgrywa­ jących dużą rolę w kształtowaniu narodowej 22 Sprawa Neda Kelly'ego, która bardzo podzieliła Australii, Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Filmowa, wówczas australijskie społeczeństwo - 3 2 tysiące osób Telewizyjna i Teatralna, Łódź 1996, s. 131. podpisało petycję o laskę dla niego. 21 G.B. Davey, G. Seal, op.cit. BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 3 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 ��57 tożsamości. Buszmen więc to mężczyzna („W wielkim australijskim śnie nie ma miejsca dla kobiet" ) z buszu, będący jego pogromcą i produktem zarazem; jest spontaniczny, szorstki w obejściu, ale równocześnie praktyczny i wytrzymały. Postać ta uchodzi za esencję wnętrza Australii: Buszmen jest „nieoswojony" niczym przyjazne, a jednak dzikie zwie­ rzę, nieujarzmiony, spalony słońcem, więc na swój sposób egzotyczny dla prze­ ciętnego australijskiego mieszczucha. Mieszka wszędzie i nigdzie zarazem, jego domem jest po prostu australijski busz. „Mit buszmena jest przedłużeniem mitu buszu. Legenda buszmena to jeden z n a j ż y w o t n i e j s z y c h australijskich mitów" . 23 24 Do XIX-wiecznej figury buszme­ na nawiązuje Krokodyl Dundee — fdm Petera Faimana, w którym w tytułową rolę wcielił się jeden z bardziej zna­ nych australijskich aktorów, Paul Hogan. Krokodyl... jest uosobieniem najbardziej wartościowych cech buszmena — lojal­ ności, przyj acielskości — charakteryzuje go egalitaryzm i typowe dla buszmenów dobre stosunki z Aborygenami oraz umiejętność życia w symbiozie z austra­ lijską przyrodą. Na zakończenie W X I X wieku kształtowała się au­ stralijska t o ż s a m o ś ć narodowa — jej wyznacznikami stały się jednak ele­ menty bardzo odmienne od narodo­ wych symboli k r a j ó w europejskich, 23 M . Haltof, op.cit., s. 126-127. Ibid., s. 126. 24 FOT. DANIEL JAEGER VENDRUSCOLO, HTTP://SXC.HU �Joanna Rzońca 58 których tożsamość bazowała na wielowieko­ wej tradycji i kulturze elitarnej. W Australii niezwykle d u ż e znaczenie miały i mają nadal w y w o d z ą c e się z kultury ludowej lub czer­ piące z niej pełnymi g a r ś c i a m i XIX-wieczne ballady i piosenki opiewające włóczęgę po bu­ szu lub powieści o łazikach przemierzających australijski interior. Jednak ogromne przestrzenie Australii także dziś prowokują wielu artystów do pod­ jęcia w swej twórczości tematu różnie rozu­ mianej w ę d r ó w k i , tułania lub ucieczki przed czymś czy też od czegoś. Motyw ten szczegól­ nie często pojawia się choćby w australijskiej kinematografii. Filmy takie jak Walkabout w r e ż y s e r i i Nicolasa Roega (1971), Pająk i Róia Billa Bennetta (1994), Priscilla, królowa pustyni Stephana Elliota (1994), Kolor zachodu słoń­ ca Johna Polsona (1999) mogą być, owszem, potraktowane jako wariacje na temat charak­ terystycznego dla a m e r y k a ń s k i e j tradycji kina drogi. Jednak z drugiej strony jest w nich coś na wskroś australijskiego - czy w bohaterach tych nie odnajdujemy bowiem jakiejś cząstki owego XIX-wiecznego swaggiego naznaczo­ nego niepewnością jutra, ale i czerpiącego siły z obietnicy przygody? Czy w ich losach nie odbija się dalekie echo historii spisanych na kartach powieści Boldrewooda czy w balla­ dach Patersona? Na pewno, g d y ż n i e z a l e ż n i e od z m i e n i a j ą c e j się nieustannie rzeczywisto­ ści mit niepoprawnego w ę d r o w c a - w ł ó c z y k i j a w c i ą ż żvie na dnie australijskich serc. Swaggie on the Road. A Figure of Nomad in 19 Century Australian Literature th Australian interior has always been the great challenge for its explorers. Australian outback is asso­ ciated with freedom, yet it turns out to be an insurmountable opponent for daredevils in traditional culture. It is the nucleus of national identity and the most important national symbols are the figu­ res of squatters, nomad sheep shears, diggers, bushrangers and tramps, who are called swagmen or swaggies. A figure of swaggie appeared for the first time in 19 century in Australian folk songs and tales. On the basis of this folk oral art activity Australian poets and writers created their own short novels and ballads, in which they pictured a modest and simple - but still full of adventures - life of men tra­ velling trough infinities of Australian land. The yearning for freedom and adventure can be found in the novels by Rolf Boldrewood. The most popular Australian song Waltzing Matilda by national poet Andrew Barton "Banjo" Paterson recalls a story of a poor swaggie, who prefers to die than go to jail. Even today enormous Australian space inspires many writers, artists and directors. They use motives of travelers, wanderers or fugitives. Films such as Walkabout by Nicolas Roeg, Spider and Rose by Bill Bennet, Priscilla by Stephan Elliot or Siam Sunset by John Poison can be considered a variation of American road movie, but they also include some very "Australian" threads. Protagonist in such film are based on the figure of the 19 century swaggie who, being uncertain of tomorrow, is getting power out of the promise of adventure. th th BARBARZYŃCA 3 - 1 ( 1 3 - 1 1 ) 3DD3 � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/b3cc714ba1af545916cb68c4cb9d2fcd.pdf 2c0083d7e5d3d0ff359dfdd4b6a8872d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5905 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5498 Title A name given to the resource Swat informuje rodziców panny o planach małżeńskich kandydata/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 15) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 15. Swat informuje rodziców panny o planach małżeńskich kandydata Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Swat: 1 - informował rodziców młodych o planach małżeńskich, 2 - poznawał ze sobą młodych i na tym jego rola się kończyła, 3 - brak tradycji, 4 - brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do lat 60.-70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich i osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (głównie praceO.Kolberga), - punkty podkreślone zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XX-wiecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 15. Czy współcześnie zdarza się, że za zgodą rodziców kawalera osoba trzecia ,,idzie w swaty" ?celem przedwstępnego omówienia sprawy zawarcia małżeństwa /.../ Kiedy we wsi ten zwyczaj zaniki? Jak było dawniej? Jak nazywają ten zwyczaj i tę czynność? 16. Zbadać czy we wsi żyją jeszcze osoby (mężczyzna?, kobieta?-wiek?zajmujące się swataniem?Jak ich nazywają?[...] 19. Dokładnie zbadać czy swat tylko informował rodziców młodej i rodziców chłopca o ich stanowiskach w sprawie małżeństwa - czy też zawierał prawomocną umowę, w której określano sprawy majątkowe, a więc „ posagu" czyli „wiana". Co w odczuciu miejscowej ludności oznaczają wyrazy: „posag"', „wiano"[...] � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/da02957d885706978ac4f0c49ebafe89.pdf 7cf6306b461f1371f4c46b4668fba36e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5916 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna zaręczyny - zwyczaje swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5509 Title A name given to the resource Swat jest świadkiem i uczestniczy w łagodzeniu sporów wynikłych z zerwania umowy majątkowej/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 26). Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 26. Swat jest świadkiem i uczestniczy w łagodzeniu sporów wynikłych z zerwania umowy majątkowej Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Swat jest ś w i a d k i e m i uczestniczy w ł a g o d z e n i u s p o r ó w w y n i k ł y c h z zerwania umowy m a j ą t k o w e j : 1 -zjawisko istnieje, 2 - b r a k tradycji, 3 - b r a k odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1 M a p ę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez P r a c o w n i ę Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska w latach 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w ś r o d k u oznacza, że zjawisko w y s t ę p o w a ł o w p r z e s z ł o ś c i . 4. Punkty z p i o n o w ą kreską oznaczają Informacje pochodzące od l u d n o ś c i n a p ł y w o w e j ( p r z e s i e d l e ń c y z K r e s ó w W s c h o d n i c h i osadnicy z r ó ż n y c h stron Polski). M a p ę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAC nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy w s p ó ł u d z i a l e Feliksa Olesiejuka: 29. Czy we wsi istnieje jeszcze zwyczaj zawierania „ zaręczyn"? a jeśli tak, jak nazywają partnerów (np. narzeczony, narzeczona lub inaczej)? Czy zaręczyny następowały w jakiś czas potem, po zmówinach? 34. Jaką rolę odgrywają osoby obecne? Jakiego zachowania wymaga obyczaj? Czy wygłaszają jakieś formuły, oracje? Jeśli tak zapisać tekst. Czy w akcie zaręczyn zatwierdzano umowę przez podanie rąk? Kto komu podawał i jaka przy tym była rola swata dziewosłęba? 35. Czy ktoś przewodniczy uczcie zaręczynowej? swat? przyszły starosta?ojciec młodej?lub kto inny. Co należy do jego obowiązków? a) wiąże i rozłącza ręce młodych, b) podaje młodym wianki lub rózgę, c) doprowadza ojców młodych do przybicia rąk jako widomego znaku zawarcia umowy? d) inicjuje przypicie umowy? jaką przy tym wygłasza formułkę? e) czy w wypadkach późniejszych sporów o posag, wiano, o niedotrzymanie umowy bywał wzywany do sądu jako świadek lub przeprowadzał polubowne rozstrzygnięcie sporów. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/5915cfc8750d5c6e846e5b402cd816f3.pdf 9a92a62a8a937a9905a2df7a5b3ea7c3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5914 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5507 Title A name given to the resource Swat nakazuje młodym położenie związanych rąk na chlebie podczas zaręczyn/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 24). Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 24. Swat nakazuje młodym położenie związanych rąk na chlebie podczas zaręczyn Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Rola swata polegała na: 1 - nakazywaniu młodym położenia związanych rąk na chlebie podczas zaręczyn, 2 - pamiętano jedynie, że dawniej rola ta polegała na wiązaniu rąk, nie wiadomo czy odbywało się to nad chlebem, 3 - brak tradycji, 4 - brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1 Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do lat 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich i osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (prace Kolberga), - punkt podkreślony został zaczerpnięty z literatury XX-wiecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAEnr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 29. Czy we wsi istnieje jeszcze zwyczaj zawierania „zaręczyn"? a jeśli tak, jak nazywają partnerów (np. narzeczony, narzeczona lub inaczej)? Czy zaręczyny następowały w jakiś czas potem, po zmówinach? 30. Jeśli zwyczaj ten zaniki, określić przybliżony czas zaniku: przed I wojną, po lwojnie, lub po II wojnie? 34. Jaką rolę odgrywają osoby obecne ? Jakiego zachowania wymaga obyczaj? Czy wygłaszają jakieś formuły, oracje ? Jeśli tak zapisać tekst. Czy w akcie zaręczyn zatwierdzano umowę przez podanie rąk? Kto komu podawali jaka przy tym była rola swata dziewoslęba? 35. Czy ktoś przewodniczy uczcie zaręczynowej?swat?przyszły starosta?ojciec młodej?lubkto inny. Co należy do jego obowiązków? a) wiąże i rozłącza ręce młodych, b) podaje młodym wianki lub rózgę, c) doprowadza ojców młodych do przybicia rąk jako widomego znaku zawarcia umowy? d) inicjuje przypicie umowy?jaką przy tym wygłasza formułkę? e) czy w wypadkach późniejszych sporów o posag, wiano, o niedotrzymanie umowybywałwzywany do sądu jako świadek lub przeprowadzał polubowne rozstrzygnięcie sporów? � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/3d1996d058982782b81747323d8c1334.pdf d181bb002aac64e9d9f2e2aacfc00338 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5907 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5500 Title A name given to the resource Swat przedstawia zalety kandydata/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 17) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 17. Swat przedstawia zalety kandydata Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Rola swata polegała na przedstawianiu zalet kandydata: 1-zjawisko istnieje, 2-brak tradycji, 3-brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają Informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich i osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (głównie praceO.Kolberga), - punkty podkreślone zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XX-wlecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: Mapa została opracowana głównie w oparciu o wypowiedzi spontaniczne. 15. Czy współcześnie zdarza się, że za zgodą rodziców kawalera osoba trzecia „idzie w swaty"? celem przedwstępnego omówienia sprawy zawarcia małżeństwa /.../Kiedy we wsi ten zwyczaj zanikł? Jak było dawniej? Jak nazywają ten zwyczaj i tę czynność? 16. Zbadać czy we wsi żyją jeszcze osoby (mężczyzna ?, kobieta ?- wiek? zajmujące się swataniem? Jak ich nazywają?[...] 20. Zbadaj jaką formę posiadały lub posiadają jeszcze swaty? a) zapisać tekst oracji swata lub dialogu z rodzicami, ewentualnie przyśpiewki, b) opisać zachowaniasięi wypowiedzi rodziców jakimi wyrazami wyrażają oni zgodę na małżeństwo. Jak odmawiają swojej zgody?[...] � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/93f5e3654c233cf1c96db5b9812b3069.pdf 3c14e1fe9d93b6ba78213a66d0919848 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5912 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw zaręczyny - zwyczaje Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5505 Title A name given to the resource Swat przewodniczy zaręczynom/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 22) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 22. Swat przewodniczy zaręczynom Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Swat przewodniczy zaręczynom: 1 - zjawisko istnieje, 2 - brak tradycji, 3 - brak odpowiedzi. Czerwoną szrafurą oznaczono udział swata w zaręczynach we wsiach zamieszkanych przez autochtonów. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIXwiekudo lat 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich I osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (praceO.Kolberga), - punkt podkreślony został zaczerpnięty z literatury XX-wiecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprać. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 29. Czy we wsi istnieje jeszcze zwyczaj zawierania „zaręczyn" ? a jeśli tak, jak nazywają partnerów (np. narzeczony, narzeczona lub inaczej)? Czy zaręczyny następowały w jakiś czas potem, po zmówinach? 30. Jeśli zwyczaj ten zaniki, określić przybliżony czaszaniku:przed l wojną, po l wojnie, lub po II wojnie? 34. Jaką rolę odgrywają osoby obecne? Jakiego zachowania wymaga obyczaj? Czy wygłaszają jakieś formuły, oracje? Jeśli tak zapisać tekst. Czy w akcie zaręczyn zatwierdzano umowę przez podanie rąk? Kto komu podawał i jaka przy tym była rola swata dziewoslęba? 35. Czy ktoś przewodniczy uczcie zaręczynowej? swat? przyszły starosta? ojciec młodej? lub kto inny. Co należy do jego obowiązków? a) wiąże i rozłącza ręce młodych, b) podaje młodym wianki lub rózgę, c) doprowadza ojców młodych do przybicia rąk jako widomego znaku zawarcia umowy? d) inicjuje przypicie umowy? jaką przy tym wygłasza formułkę ? e) czy w wypadkach późniejszych sporów o posag, wiano, o niedotrzymanie umowy bywał wzywany do sądu jako świadek lub przeprowadzał polubowne rozstrzygnięcie sporów. � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/c5b2028e9d77c3df32cc242446ad8ae2.pdf 41b32f26bc94494cd1efdd4fd0e263fd Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5906 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5499 Title A name given to the resource Swat rozpoczyna spotkanie z rodzicami panny w sposób symboliczny/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 16) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 16. Swat rozpoczyna spotkanie z rodzicami panny w sposób symboliczny Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Rola swata polegała na symbolicznym rozpoczęciu spotkania z rodzicami panny, np.: 1 - wygłaszaniu oracji bądź też rozpoczynaniu rozmowy od tematów obojętnych, nie związanych bezpośrednio z prawdziwym celem wizyty, 2-brak tradycji, 3-brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do lat 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich i osadnicy z różnych stron Polski) 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wlecznej (głównie praceO.Kolberga), - punkty podkreślone zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XX-wlecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 15. Czy współcześnie zdarza się, że za zgodą rodziców kawalera osoba trzecia „idzie w swaty"? celem przedwstępnego omówienia sprawy zawarcia małżeństwa /.../ Kiedy we wsi ten zwyczaj zanikł? Jak było da wniej?Jak nazywają ten zwyczaj i tę czynność? 16. Zbadać czy we wsi żyją jeszcze osoby (mężczyzna?, kobieta?- wiek? zajmujące się swataniem?Jak Ich nazywają?[..] 20. Zbadajjakąformę posiadały lub posiadają jeszcze swaty? a) zapisać tekst oracji swata lub dialogu z rodzicami, ewentualnie przyśpiewki, b) opisać zachowania i wypowiedzi rodziców, jakimi wyrazami wyrażają oni zgodę na małżeństwo. Jak odmawiają swojej zgody? Rodzice dziewczyny dają „poczęstne"? Jeśli tak, to jakie? � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/679da10eb0dda76d49d5bf3582a96ebd.pdf 6d93a0d01576b71f9bde7f481b1937ca Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5909 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5502 Title A name given to the resource Swat uczestniczy w pertraktacjach majątkowych/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 19) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 19. Swat uczestniczy w pertraktacjach majątkowych Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Swat jako pośrednik w swatach i zaręczynach: 1 - zawierał prawomocną umowę majątkową pomiędzy stronami. 2 - uczestniczył w pertraktacjach majątkowych, brak dokładniejszych danych na ten temat, 3 - brak tradycji, 4 - brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do lat 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości. 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich i osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (głównie praceO.Kolberga), - punkty podkreślone zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XX-wiecznej (Olesiejuk, 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprac. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 15. Czy współcześnie zdarza się, że za zgodą rodziców kawalera osoba trzecia „idzie w swaty"? celem przedwstępnego omówienia sprawy zawarcia małżeństwa /.../ Kiedy we wsi ten zwyczaj zanikł? Jak było dawniej? Jak nazywają ten zwyczaj i tę czynność? 16. Zbadać czy we wsi żyją jeszcze osoby (mężczyzna?, kobieta?-wiek?zajmujące się swataniem? Jak ich nazywają? [...] 19. Dokładnie zbadać czy swat tylko informował rodziców młodej i rodziców chłopca o ich stanowiskach w sprawie małżeństwa czy też zawierał prawomocną umowę, w której określano sprawy majątkowe, a więc „posagu" czyli wiana. Co w odczuciu miejscowej ludności oznaczają wyrazy: „posag", „wiano"?, której zerwanie groziło „nawiązką"? [...] � https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/ed4bc5994524f21be80220c8ba0700ed.pdf bcb95b9ba6d38096b1e8e44af3c3ea97 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5709 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne Polski Atlas Etnograficzny wesele - obyczaje małżeństwo Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5307 Title A name given to the resource Swat uzyskuje wstępną zgodę rodziców panny na małżeństwo/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8: Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickiego (mapa nr 18) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.6: The folk knowledge and beliefs Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource image/jpeg https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/65dd42b1b2d384e6d71750aecef02c14.pdf 88832293f02af4dbd1f7f1a0844d4c4e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny Subject The topic of the resource atlasy etnograficzne, mapy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource PTL, Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available PTL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 - Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource IAiE PAN (d.IHKM PAN) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:5908 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Subject The topic of the resource Polski Atlas Etnograficzny atlasy etnograficzne wesele - zwyczaje kultura społeczna swat - kojarzenie małżeństw Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:5501 Title A name given to the resource Swat uzyskuje wstępną zgodę rodziców panny na małżeństwo/ Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego (mapy) Description An account of the resource Komentarze do Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego t.8 cz.2: Rola i znaczenie swata w kojarzeniu małżeństw pod red.nauk.Zygmunta Kłodnickego (mapa nr 18) Commentaries to the Polish Ethnographic Atlas vol.8. Agnieszka Pieńczak: Wedding customs and rituals, part 2: The matchmaker's role and importance in arranging marriages Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pieńczak, Agnieszka Language A language of the resource pol. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze Uniwersytet Wrocławski Type The nature or genre of the resource mapa Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text 18. Swat uzyskuje wstępną zgodę rodziców panny na małżeństwo Opracowała Agnieszka Pieńczak Objaśnienia znaków: Swat uzyskiwał wstępną zgodę rodziców panny na małżeństwo: 1 -zjawisko istnieje, 2 - brak tradycji, 3 - brak odpowiedzi. Uwagi: 1. Mapę opracowano na podstawie badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w latach 70. XX wieku przez Pracownię Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego. 2. Mapa dotyczy stanu zjawiska od połowy XIX wieku do lat 70. XX wieku. 3. Znak z kropką w środku oznacza, że zjawisko występowało w przeszłości 4. Punkty z pionową kreską oznaczają informacje pochodzące od ludności napływowej (przesiedleńcy z Kresów Wschodnich I osadnicy z różnych stron Polski). 5. Mapa została uzupełniona o punkty dodatkowe (spoza stałej sieci badawczej PAE): - punkty oznaczone kolorem szarym zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XIX-wiecznej (głównie praceO.Kolberga), - punkty podkreślone zostały zaczerpnięte z literatury XX-wiecznej (Olesiejuk. 1971). Mapę opracowano na podstawie odpowiedzi na pytania zawarte w kwestionariuszu PAE nr 9, Zwyczaje i obrzędy weselne, oprać. Józef Gajek przy współudziale Feliksa Olesiejuka: 15. Czy współcześnie zdarza się, że za zgodą rodziców kawalera osoba trzecia „idzie w swaty"? celem przedwstępnego omówienia sprawy zawarcia małżeństwa /.../ Kiedy we wsi ten zwyczaj zaniki? Jak było dawniej? Jak nazywają ten zwyczaj i tę czynność? 16. Zbadać czy we wsi żyją jeszcze osoby (mężczyzna?, kobieta?-wiek? zajmujące się swataniem?Jak ich nazywają?[...] 19. Dokładnie zbadać czy swat tylko informował rodziców młodej i rodziców chłopca o ich stanowiskach w sprawie małżeństwa - czy też zawierał prawomocną mowę, w której określano sprawy majątkowe, a więc „posagu" czyli wiana. Co w odczuciu miejscowej ludności oznaczają wyrazy: „posag'', „wiano"?, której zerwanie groziło „nawiązką"? 20. Zbadaj jaką formę posiadały lub posiadają jeszcze swaty? a) zapisać tekst oracji swata lub dialogu z rodzicami, ewentualnie przyśpiewki, b) opisać zachowania się i wypowiedzi rodziców jakimi wyrazami wyrażają oni zgodę na małżeństwo. Jak odmawiają swojej zgody? Rodzice dziewczyny dają „poczęstne"? Jeśli tak, to jakie? 21. W związku z przebiegiem „swatów" zapisać czy swat udawał się sam czy też z kimś, na przykład ojcem kawalera, czy też z samym kawalerem? Czy przynosili „poczęstne"? Czy chłopiec czekał przed chałupą, aż go wezwą? w wypadku zgody rodziców dziewczyny następowało „przypicie" wódki przyniesionej przez swata? Czy pila też dziewczyna? z młodym? �