https://zbiory.etnologia.uw.edu.pl/files/original/7e5e50a13eb2c1cb372428aa041a74b4.pdf ea0c49ac1e8efcc0a838b8a6858923c0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Etnografia Polska Subject The topic of the resource etnografia, etnologia Description An account of the resource czasopismo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1958- Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Licencja PIA Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Language A language of the resource polski Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource IAiE PAN ( d.IHKM PAN) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IAiE PAN Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Relation A related resource oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:860 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:791 Title A name given to the resource Some theoretical and methodological aspects of studies in human communication behavior / ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1975 t.19 z.2 Description An account of the resource ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1975 t.19 z.2, s.139-148 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ciołek, Tadeusz Maciej Language A language of the resource ang. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN, Instytut Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf application/pdf PDF Text Text capture metadata for PDF documents Text „Etnografia Polska", t. X I X z. 2 TADEUSZ MACIEJ CIOŁEK SOME T H E O R E T I C A L A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L ASPECTS OF S T U D I E S I N H U M A N C O M M U N I C A T I O N A L B E H A V I O R Most of the recent w o r k i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior has been concerned w i t h such aspects of face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n as spacing, o r i e n t a t i o n , gesture, posture, diffuse body movement, facial expression, gaze, tone of voice, appearance and amount, rate and f l u e n c y of speech. I t is w i t h these aspects here collectively r e f e r r e d t o as n o n v e r b a l aspects of h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior, that this r e v i e w w i l l be concerned. The a i m of t h i s paper is to give a b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of: A ) sources of contemporary interest in nonverbal communication, B ) main research areas, C) main methodological principles, D ) variety of research stra­ tegies and techniques. The r e v i e w w i l l refer to several books and papers, b o t h k e y w o r k s on the subject and accidental, often obscure sources. I t is i n t e n d e d as a general i n t r o d u c t i o n , or better s t i l l , an annotated b i b l i o g r a p h y of w o r k s on the problems w h i c h are r a p i d l y becoming of c e n t r a l interest i n the social as w e l l as the biological sciences of M a n . A . The contemporary interest i n problems classified today as studies i n h u m a n n o n v e r b a l behavior and c o m m u n i c a t i o n are of m a n y years' standing a n d have a n u m b e r of roots. Such problems as "expressive m o v e m e n t s " , "symbolic m o v e m e n t s " , " b o d i l y e x p r e s s i o n " , "gestural behavior" or "language of gestures" have been w i t h i n the scope of i n 1 2 5 1 3 4 6 The paper is abstracted from the larger seminar paper prepared in Septem­ ber 1973 in the Dept. of Anthropology, RSPacS, Australian National University, Canberra. The author is indebted for critical remarks on the present version to Dr Adam Kendon. G . W. A11 p о r t, P. E . V e r n o n , Studies in expressive movement, New York 1933. M. H . К r o u t, Autistic gestures: an experimental study in symbolic move­ ment, „Psychological Monographs", no 208: 1935. W. M. B l a k e , A preliminary study of the interpretation of bodily expres­ sion, New York 1933. D. E f г о n, J . P. F o l e y , Gestural behavior and the social setting, [in:] Т. M. N e w c o m b , E . L . H a r t l e y , Readings in Social Psychology, New York 1947. G. С о с h i a г a, I I linguaggio del gesto, Turin 1932. 2 3 4 5 6 �140 TADEUSZ M. CIOŁEK terest o f several scientific disciplines. E v e r y discipline has been concerned w i t h different research problems, used different techniques of collec­ t i o n and analysis of data, a n d the t h e o r e t i c a l constructions have been created f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes. F o r these reasons the v a r i e t y of theore­ t i c a l and methodological profiles of studies i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior is not t h e mere result of a process of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and spe­ cification of scientific interests, b u t can be regarded as the outcome of the fusion of o r i g i n a l l y d i f f e r e n t and seperate approaches, such as: A n t h r o p o l o g y , h i s t o r y of c u l t u r e , h i s t o r y of a r t — w h e r e interest has been focused on s y m b o l i s m of b o d i l y r i t u a l s , sign languages , e x ­ pression of social relations ~ or i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of v i s u a l a r t and music . W i t h i n the interest of linguistics l i e p r o b l e m s of speechreplacing signs a n d gestures , speech accompanying behavior , sign languages , vocal and nonvocal aspects of speech c o m m u n i c a t i o n , gestural origins of l a n g u a g e . The subjects of interest to psychology and p s y c h i a t r y are p r o b l e m s of interpersonal perception , expression of p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , expres7 9 8 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 18 1 9 7 2 0 W. T e g g, Meetings and greetings: the salutations, obeisances, and courtesies of nations, London 1877. M. L . S c o t t , The sign language of the Plains Indians of North America, „Archives of The International Folk-lore Association", vol 1: 1893. S. E . L o o m i s, Sign Language of truck drivers, „Western Folklore", vol 5: 1956. M . K u t t i k r i s h n a , Hand symbols in Kathakali, „Modern Review", June 1937. R. F i r t h , Verbal and bodily rituals of greeting and parting, [in:] J . S. L a F o n t a i n e , Interpretation of ritual: essays in honour of A. I. Richards, London 1972. R. B r i l l i a n t , Gesture and rank in Roman art: the use of gestures to denote status in Roman sculpture and coinage, New Haven 1963. E . S a X 1 , Die Ausdruckgebarde der Bildenden Kunst, Jena 1932. A. P. M e r r i a m, Music as symbolic behavior, [in:] H . А. В o s a m j i a n, The rhetoric of nonverbal communication: readings, Glenview 1971. R. J а к o b s о n, Motor signs for „Yes" and „No", „Language in Society", vol 1: 1972. A. T. D i 11 m a n n, L . G . L l e w e l l y n , Body movement and speech rhytm in social conversation, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", 11: 1969. „Sign Language Studies", a semiannual journal edited by W. C . S t о к о e, The Hague: Mouton. D. A b e r c o m b i e , Paralanguage, „British Journal of Disorders of Com­ munication", vol. 3: 1968. A. J o h a n n e s s o n , The gestural origin of language, „Naturę", vol. 166: 1950. G . W. H e w e s , Primate communication and the gestural origin of language, „Current Anthropology", vol. 14: 1973. M. C o o k , Interpersonal perception, Hardmondsworth 1971. С h. W o l f f , A psychology of gestures, London 1945. 8 9 1 0 11 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 �STUDIES sion of e m o t i o n a l a n d 2 3 interaction , 2 5 tion IN HUMAN p s y c h o p h y s i c a l states therapeutic 2 1 , psychodiagnosis 2 4 communication , as well as 2 2 , dyadic selfpresenta- . Studies i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y are p r o b l e m s of signals, codes, a n d as with of exchanging problems of concerned m a i n l y with channels used b y h u m a n beings, as w e l l environmental variables influencing the process 26 signals . F i n a l l y these issues are non-human primate And 141 COMMUNICATIONAL BEHAVIOR 27 28 of i m p o r t a n c e to p e d i a t r i c s , 2 9 ethology , human 3 0 ethology , and o b v i o u s l y these issues have been considered b y 3 2 p r a c t i c i a n s of o r a t o r y , t h e a t r e and dance 3 3 and pedagogics , 31 zoosemiotics . theoreticians and 3 4 pantomime . I n such a v a r i e t y of studies expressed b y t h e vast r a n g e o f t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e the growing d e m a n d for p r o b l e m s and findings is p a r t i a l l y a synthetic satisfied. And evaluation t h u s for of research the general discussion of t h e o r e t i c a l aspects of studies i n h u m a n one can l i s t several important works 2 1 3 5 . F . D u n b a r , Emotions and bodily changes: a survey of literature on psy­ chosomatic interrelationships 1910-1953, New York 1954. E . M y r a у L o p e z , Myokinetic psychodiagnosis, New York 1958. M. A r g у 1 e, J . D e a n , Eye contact, distance, and affiliation, ,,Sociometry", vol. 28: 1965. M. C o o k, Experiments on orientation and proxemics, „Humań Relations", vol. 23: 1970. L . J . F i n e, Nonverbal aspects of psychodrama, [in:] J . H. M a s s e r m a n, J . L . M o r e n o , Progress in psychotherapy, vol. IV. New York 1959. J . C . F 1 u g e 1, The psychology of clothes, London 1940. G. A. B o r d e n , An introduction to human—communication theory, D u ­ buque 1971. K . S. R o b s о n, The role of eye—to—eye contact in maternal-infant attach­ ment, „Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry", vol. 8: 1967. J . R. G r e e n , A gesture inventory for the teaching of Spanish, Philadel­ phia 1968. S. A. A l t m a n , The structure of primate social communication, [in:] S. A. A l t m a n , ed., Social communication among primates, Chicago — London 1967. I. E i b l - E i b e s f e l d t , Transcultural patterns of ritualized contact beha­ vior, [in:] A. H . E s s e r, Behavior and environment: the use of space by ani­ mals and men, New York 1971. T . A. S e b e ok, ed., Animal communication: techniques of study and results of research, Bloomington •— London 1968. J . P. M а с L a u r i n, Self-education in gesture for public speaking, Glas­ gow 1910. A. M o r g a n , An hour with Delsatre: a study of expression, Boston 1889. F . A. F . A d a m s , Gesture and pantomime action, New York 1891. P. E к m a n, W. V. F r i e s e n , The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: categories, origins, usage and coding, „Semiotica", vol. 1: 1969. M. A r g y l e , So­ cial Interaction, Atherton 1969. M. A r g у 1 e, The psychology of interpersonal behaviour, Harmondsworth 1972, M. A r g y l e , Nonverbal communication in human 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 �142 TADEUSZ If we are concerned w i t h w o r k s s u m m a r i z i n g aspects of these studies, beside t h e most v a l u a b l e are 38 expression , linguistic human M. CIOŁEK reviews for interpersonal 4 1 communication 3 9 f o r the trends and 3 6 Duncan , 37 interactions , facial-visual 40 signals , the facial extra- area of ethological approach to . F i n a l l y t h e r e are several b i b l i o g r a p h i e s T h e r e are different paper b y ecology of h u m a n perception , v o c a l b e h a v i o r , and 4 2 excellent 4 3 and m o r e p o p u l a r r e v i e w s also several useful selections of readings 4 S 4 4 . . social interaction, [in:] R. A. Hinde, ed., Non—verbal communication, Cambridge 1972. А. К e n d о n, The review of R. Birdwhistell's book: Kinesics and Context, „American Journal of Psychology", vol. 85: 1972. A. E . S c h e f l e n , How beha­ vior means, New York 1973. S. D u n c a n , Nonverbal communication, „Psychological Bulletin", vol. 72: 1969. I . A 1 1 m a n, E . L e t t , The ecology of interpersonal relationships: a clas­ sification system and conceptual model, [in:] J . E . M c G r a t h , ed., Social and psychological factors in stress, 1967. R. S o m m e r , Small group ecology, „ P s y ­ chological Bulletin", vol. 67: 1967. P. E к m a n, V. W. F r i e s e n , P. E l l s w o r t h , Emotion in the human face: guideline for research and integration of findings, New York 1972. P. E km a n, ed., Darwin and facial expression: a century of research in review, New York 1973. M. C o o k , Interpersonal perception, Hardmondsworth 1971. I . V i n e , Communication by facial—visual signals, [in:] J . H . C r o o k , ed. Social Behavior in birds and mammals: essays on the social ethology of animals and Man, London — New York 1970. G . F . M a h 1, G . S с h u 1 z e, Psychological research in the extralinguistic area, [in:] T . A . S e b e ok, et. al., eds., Approaches to semiotics, The Hague 1964. С h. R. В r a n n i g a n, D. A. H u m p h r i e s , Human non—verbal beha­ viour: a means of communication, [in:] N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , ed., Ethological studies of child behaviour, Cambridge 1972. Т. M. C i o ł e k , Human communicational behavior — a provisional check­ list, „Sign Language Studies", no. 5: 1974. M. D a v i s , Understanding body mo­ vement: an annotated bibliography, New York 1972. F . C . H a y e s , Gestures: a working bibliography, „Southern Folklore Quarterly", vol. 21: 1957. M. L u r k e r, Bibliographic zur Symbolkunde, Baden—Baden 1968. T. P f e i f f e r , Some references to the study of human ethology, Mimeographed. Dept. of Anthropology, Livingston College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1971. L . L . B a r k e r , N. B. C o l l i n s , Nonverbal and kinesic research, [in:] P. E m m e r t, W. D. B r o o k s , eds., Methods of research in communication, B o ­ ston 1970. D. C . B a r n l u n d , Nonverbal interaction: introduction, [in:] D. C . B a r n l u n d , ed., Interpersonal communication: survey and studies, Bo­ ston 1968. H. J . V e t t e r , Language behavior and communication: an introdu­ ction, Itasca 1969. M. A r g у 1 e, ed., Social encounters: readings in social interaction, Hard­ mondsworth 1973. H. А. В o s m a j i a n, ed., The rethoric of nonverbal communi­ cation: readings, Glenview 1971. J . L a v e r , S. H u t c h e s o n , Communication in face to face interactions: selected readings, Hardmondsworth 1972. 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 �STUDIES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATIONAL из BEHAVIOR В . There exist three f u n d a m e n t a l groups of studies concerned w i t h the three basic functions of n o n v e r b a l behaviors i n face-to-face i n t e r ­ actions. The f i r s t g r o u p of w o r k consists of researches on the speechreplacing junction. T h e r e are several reasons f o r w h i c h v e r b a l c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n (based on w r i t t e n or spoken language) is subject to r e p l a ­ cement b y "sign languages" and "technical codes". Besides the deaf a n d m u t e sign systems, and some social taboos such as i n the case T r a p pist m o n k s , q u i t e complex systems o f gestural and p o s t u r a l signs are used f o r solving the p r o b l e m of: — differences i n spoken languages used b y i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n the act of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( i . e. A m e r i c a n Indians, d r i v e r s , traffic police, i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u n d - a i r rescue signals) — noise p r e c l u d i n g any efficient use of speech (drivers, hitchhickers, firemen) — distance w h i c h is too great f o r effective voice use ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u n d - a i r signals, crane-operators, f i r e m e n , umpires) — silence w h i c h f o r any specific reason should not be d i s t u r b e d (sur­ geons, hunters, conductors & choirmasters, i n g a m b l i n g casions) — b a r r i e r s or e x t e r n a l conditions m a k i n g the use of v e r b a l c o m m u n i ­ cation impossible (radio & television gestures, divers) — secrecy: b o t h of message itself and of the fact of c o m m u n i c a t i o n (gambling casinos, burglars, secret associations, prisoners). The second g r o u p of studies is concerned w i t h the role of nonverbal signals in the process of supporting, completing, regulating the verbal communication. These studies are devoted to the analysis o f the t e m p o ­ r a l sequence or c o i n c i d e n c e , of the v e r b a l and n o n v e r b a l behaviors as w e l l as to the analysis of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between meanings con­ veyed b y each of the channels . The various types o f elements of v i s u a l and acoustic behavior have i m p o r t a n t functions: — t h e y complete the meaning (repeat, i l l u s t r a t e , accent, anticipate, con­ tradict) of spoken utterances — t h e y c o n t r o l the s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of actions i n conversation 4 6 4 7 4 48 4 9 5 0 4 6 Т. В r u n, The international dictionary of sign language, London 1969. Т. M. C i o ł e k , Materiały do alchemii gestów, „Etnografia Polska", vol. 17: 1973. M. С r i t с h 1 e у, The language of gesture, London 1939. W. S. C o n d o n , W. D. O g s t о n, Sound film analysis of normal and pathological behavior patterns, „Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease", vol. 143: 1966. M. A r g у 1 e, et. al. The communication of inferior and superior attitudes by verbal and non—verbal signals, „British Journal of Social and Clinical Psycholo­ gy", vol. 9: 1970. S. D u n c a n , Some signals at. rules for taking speaking turns in conver­ sations, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", vol. 23: 1972. A . K e n 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 �144 T A D E U S Z M. CIOŁEK — t h e y p r o v i d e feedback to the speaker on the reaction of the audience — t h e y signal to the speaker about the attentiveness of a listener. The t h i r d group of studies, the most i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of anthropological sciences, is concerned w i t h the researches on nonverbal behavior in managing the immediate social situation . These studies deal w i t h the general question: W h a t b e h a v i o r a l elements, i n w h a t sort of configurations and i n w h a t contexts, are i n use f o r the purpose of: — c o n t r o l of the content, emotional tone and l e n g t h of interactions — c o n t r o l of dimensions (role-relation, i n t i m a c y , dominance) of r e l a ­ tionship — co-ordination of activities and sequences of behavior — signalling responsiveness and attentiveness. C. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l and r a p i d progress of knowledge i n the f i e l d of h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior is associated w i t h the i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o the b o d y of social sciences the principle of the study of the detailed process of specific interactions at the level of the elements of these intera­ ctions. U n d o u b t e d l y , h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l here have been some m e t h o d o l o g i ­ cal postulates w o r k e d out i n biological sciences, especially b y h u m a n et­ hology. P a r t i c u l a r y i m p o r t a n t seem to b e three r e q u i r e m e n t s : — emphasis o n the use of the large v a r i e t y of simple observable features of behavior as r a w data — emphasis on the development of the descriptive and hypothesisgenerating phase as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t of s t u d y — an avoidance of major categories of behavior whose r e a l i t y or ope­ r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n have not been made clear enough. The acceptance of these methodological principles appears to be i n congruence w i t h the i n n e r t r e n d of systematis studies i n functions of body m o t i o n , paralanguage a n d p r o x i m a t i o n . These studies w e r e b r o u g h t i n t o existence b y c o n s t r u c t i n g and developing systems of i d e n ­ t i f i c a t i o n and n o t a t i o n for elements of v o c a l and non-acoustic beha51 52 5 3 5 4 d o n , Some functions of gaze direction in social interaction, „Acta Psychologica" v o l 26: 1967. M. A r g y l e , Social Interaction, Atherton 1969. M. A r g y l e , ed., Social encounters: readings in social interaction, Hard­ mondsworth 1973. N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , Characteristics of ethological studies of human behaviour, [in:] N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , ed., Ethological studies of child behaviour, Cambridge 1972. G . L . T r a g e r, Paralanguage: a first approximation, „Studies in L i n ­ guistics", vol. 13: 1958. D. C r y s t a l , B . Q u i r k , Systems of prosodic and paralinguistic features in English, The Hague 1964. 51 5 2 5 8 5 4 �STUDIES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATIONAL 145 BEHAVIOR 5 5 v i o r . A t the same t i m e the f u l l usage of h u m a n ethology's research techniques, as w e l l as its findings, seems to safeguard the progress i n social sciences. T h e second s t i m u l a t i n g factor was the i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o social sciences of the idea of extensively relating findings from the sphere of human behavior to their biological basis as well as to their inter­ actional, physical, social, psychological and cultural context. I n accor­ dance w i t h this t r e n d several studies have been made, m a i n l y w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of researches i n social psychology, on the influence of some antecedent and c o n t e x t u a l factors on ongoing social interaction. G e n e r a l l y speaking several types of researches can be distinguished concerned w i t h such problems as: — t h e influence of the purpose of encounter o n the outcome of i n t e r ­ action — the influence of p h y s i c a l and physiological factors encompassing b o t h the m o m e n t a r y a n d r e l a t i v e l y e n d u r i n g states of i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n i n t e r a c t i o n . Some factors l i k e body b u i l d , p h y s i c a l stigma , pupil dilation can be of great i m p o r t a n c e f o r the f i n a l result of an encounter — the influence of personal (demographic, psychological, sociocultural) characteristics. Some of t h e m l i k e appearance , sex, age , ethnic back5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 5 5 e 2 R. B i r d w h i s t e l l , Introduction to kinesics, Louisville 1952. R. В i r dw h i s t e l l , Kinesics and context: essays on body motion communication, P h i ­ ladelphia 1970. Т. E . H a l l , A system for the notation of proxemic behavior, „American Anthropologist", vol. 65: 1963. M. C o o k , Experiments on orientation and proxemics, „Humań Relations", vol. 23: 1970. R. S o m m e r , Further studies in small group ecology, „Sociometry", vol. 28: 1965. G . M с В r i d e, et al., Social proximity effects on galvanic skin responses in adult humans, „Journal of Psychology", vol. 61: 1965. К. T. S t r o n g m a n , C . J . H a r t , Stereotyped reactions to body build, .Psychological Report", vol. 23: 1968. E . G o f f m a n, Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity, Englewood Cliffs 1963. R. K l e c k , Physical stigma and nonverbal cues emitted in the face to face interactions, „Humań Relations", vol. 21: 1968. J . W. S t a s s, F . N. W i l l i s , Eye contact, pupil dilation and personal preference, „Psychonomic Science", vol. 7: 1967. M. A r g у 1 e, R. M с H e n r y, Do spectacles really affect judgments of intelligence?, „British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology", vol. 10: 1970. W. J . M с К e а с h i e, Lipstick as a determiner of first impressions of persona­ lity, „Journal of Social Psychology", vol. 36: 1952. G. N i e l s e n , Studies in self-confrontation, viewing of sound motion pic­ ture of self and another person in a stressful dyadic situation. Copenhagen 1962. L . A. P a s t a l a n , D. H . C a r s o n , eds., Spatial behavior of older people, Ann Arbor 1970. 5 6 5 7 5 8 6 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 10 — E t n o g r a f i a P o l s k a , X I X / 2 �146 TADEUSZ M. CIOŁEK 6 3 g r o u n d , psychological disturbances tant 65 differences , emotional 6 6 67 the influence events have have been f o u n d tone of i n t e r a c t i o n , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , value c o n g r u e n c e — 6 1 68 subject to and have also been p o i n t e d of e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w h i c h been to be role detailed encompass the studies. The impor­ status out set of representative studies here are those on the i n f l u e n c e of landscape a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e l i v i n g arrangement of c r o w d i n g 7 3 7 0 , room design 7 1 , seating a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n t e r p e r s o n a l distances 7 4 7 2 6 9 , , degree . D . W i t h i n n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n studies exists a great v a r i e t y of research techniques. T h e main differences can be r e c a p i t u l a t e d as fol­ lows: The f i r s t is developed a r o u n d the b e h a v i o r is r e g a r d e d as the main question: w h i c h aspect of human f i e l d of interest. Thus some studies can be devoted t o the b e h a v i o r of t h a t i n d i v i d u a l , w h o i n the course of 6 3 J . R. A i e 11 o, S. E . J o n e s , Field study of the proxemic behavior of young school children in three subcultural groups, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", vol. 19: 1971. О. M. W a t s o n , T. D. G r a v e s , Quantitative research in proxemic behavior, „American Anthropologist" vol. 68: 1966. C . H u 11, С. O u n n s t e a d, The biological significance of gaze aversion with particular reference to the syndrome of infantile autism, „Behavioral Science", vol. 11: 1966. R. Firth, Postures and gestures of respect, [in:] P. M a r a n d a, J . P o u i 11 o n, eds., Exchange et communications: Melanges Levi-Strauss, The Hague 1969. R. V. E X 1 i n e, L . C . W i n t e r s , Affective relations and mutual glances in dyads, [in:] S. S. T o m p k i n s , С. E . I z a r d , eds., Affect, cognition and per­ sonality, New York 1965. S. M. J o u r a r d, An exploratory study body accessibility, „British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology", vol. 5: 1966. D. F . L o t t , R. S o m m e r , Seating arrangements and status, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", vol. 7: 1967. К. B. L i t t l e , et. al., Value congruence and interaction distances, „Journal of Social Psychology", vol. 79: 1968. H . W r i g h t , R. B a r k e r , Midwest and its children, Lawrence 1957. R. R. B l a k e , et. al., Housing architecture and social interaction, „Sociometry", vol. 19: 1956. R. S o m m e r , Small group ecology, „Psychological Bulletin", vol. 67: 1967. A . P. H a r e , R. F . B a l e s , Seating position and small-group interaction, „Sociometry". vol. 26: 1963. W. G r i f f i 11, P, V e i t с h, Hot and crowded: influences of population density on interpersonal affective behavior, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", vol. 17: 1971. M. A r g у 1 e, J . D e a n , Eye contact, distance, and affiliation, „Sociomet­ ry", vol. 28: 1965. 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 69 7 0 7 1 72 7 3 7 4 �STUDIES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATIONAL 147 BEHAVIOR 7 5 i n t e r a c t i o n is the "sender of a s i g n a l " , other studies can focus t h e i r a t t e n t i o n o n the behavior o f the "receiver of a signal" , or studies can be concerned w i t h the n a t u r e of t h e signal . F i n a l l y as the m a i n issue the i n t e r a c t i o n a l event itself w i t h i t s s t r u c t u r e and charakteristics can be studied . 7 6 7 7 7 8 T h e second t y p e is based on the status chosen f o r the i n d i v i d u a l s s t u ­ died. There are several possibilities: a n i n d i v i d u a l (or group of them) can be t o t a l l y unaware t h a t the studies on t h e i r behavior are being c a r r i e d o u t , secondly subject(s) can be t o l d g e n e r a l l y b u t unspecifically t h a t studies concerned w i t h t h e i r behavior w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t , f i n a l l y sub­ j e c t s ) can be f u l l y i n f o r m e d about the objectives and details of planned studies . 7 9 8 0 8 1 The n e x t v a r i e t y is r e l a t e d to the w a y the r a w data is collected. The collection can be based on f i e l d studies i n n a t u r a l settings, such as l i ­ braries, restaurants, shopping centers, nurseries, airports, parks , or the data collection can be c a r r i e d out w i t h the a i d of l a b o r a t o r y facilities . I n t h i s case there are t w o possibilities: a) the analysed phenomena can be deliberately ( a r t i f i c a l l y ) elicited f o r the purpose of a g i v e n phase of r e s e a r c h , or b) t h e y can be observed and recorded w i t h o u t i n t e r f e ­ rence b y the researcher i n t h e i r spontaneous o c c u r r e n c e . 8 2 8 3 84 85 7 5 I . E i b l - E i b e s f e l d t , Transcultural patterns of ritualized contact beha­ vior, [in:] A. H . E s s e r, ed., Behavior and environment: the use of space by animals and men, New York 1971. A. T . D i t t m a n , et. al., Facial and bodily expression: a study of recep­ tivity of emotional cues, „Psychiatry", vol. 28: 1965. N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , Criteria for use in describing facial expressions of children, „Humań Biology", vol. 43: 1971. A. K e n d o n , A. F e r b e r, A description of some human greetings, [in:] R. P. M i c h a e l , J . H . C r o o k , eds., Comparative Ecology and Behaviour of Primates, London 1973. W. C . M c G r e w , An ethological study of children's behaviour, New York — London 1972; Т. M. C i o ł e k , Greeting and farewell behavior in Man: report on preliminary investigations, Mimeographed, Dept. of Anthropology, RSPacS, Australian National University, Canberra 1974. M. H . К r o u t, An experimental attempt to produce unconscious manual symbolic movements, „The Journal of General Psychology", no 208: 1954. D. F . T h o m p s o n , L . M e l t z e r , Communicational of emotional intent by facial expressions, „Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology", vol. 68: 1964. S. H e s h к a, Y . N e l s o n , Interpersonal Speaking Distance as a Function of Age, Sex, and Relationship, „Sociometry", vol. 35: 1972. M. A r g у 1 e, R. I n h g a m , Gaze, mutual baze, and proximity, „Semiotica", vol. 6:1972. i. e. G. M с В r i d e et al., 1965. А. К e n d o n, Movement coordination in social interaction: some examples described, „Acta Psychologica" vol 32: 1970. 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 8 8 4 8 5 �148 T A D E U S Z M. CIOŁEK The f o u r t h t y p e of difference arises f r o m t h e w a y the data is c o l ­ lected and recorded. Several techniques can be e m p l o y e d seperatedly or s i m u l t a n o u s l y : q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , observation a n d n o t e - t a k i n g ; obser­ v a t i o n w i t h the a i d of detailed n o t a t i o n system ; observations w i t h the a i d of check-lists and v i d e o t a p e r a c o r d e r s taperecording comments on ongoing i n t e r a c t i o n a l e v e n t s ; analysis of transcribed v i d e o t a p e as w e l l as the frame b y frame analysis of a research document f i l m . 86 8 7 8 8 89 90 91 9 2 F i n a l l y the f i f t h category is connected w i t h methods of data analy­ sis. A n d thus conclusions can be d r a w n i n m a n y ways: o n the basis of s t r u c t u r a l , c o n t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s ; on the basis of statistical t r e a t m e n t of n u m e r i c d a t a ; or event due to computer p r o c e s s i n g . 93 9 4 86 8 7 8 8 i. e. S. M. J o u r a r d 1966. i. e. R. F i r t h 1969. О. M. W a t s o n , Proxemic 95 behavior: a cross—cultural study, The Hague 1970. 8 9 i. e. W. С. M с G r e w 1972. i. e. W. С. M с G r e w 1972. i. e. S. D u n c a n 1972. i. е. А. К e n d o n, A. F e r b e r 1973. A. E . S с h e f 1 e n, Natural History Method in Psychotherapy: communicational research, [in:] L . A. G o t t s c h a l k , A. H . A u e r b a c h , Methods of Research in Psychotherapy, New York 1966. M. H. K r o u t, An experimental attempt to determine the significance of unconscious manual movements, „The Journal of General Psychology", vol. 51: 1954. P. E k m a n , W. V . F r i e s e n , Т. T a u s s i g , VID—R and SCAN: tools and methods for automated analysis of visual records, [in:] G . G e r b n e r , et. al., The analysis of communication content, New York 1969. 9 0 91 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 �